


& 




(fOl 



0-6 



KEY 

TO THE QUESTIONS CONTAINED IN 

WEST'S ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH 
GRAMMAR 

AND 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
FOR BEGINNERS. 



aonUon: C. J. CLAY and SONS, 

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, 

AVE MARIA LANE. 

(Slasgoto: 50, WELLINGTON STREET. 



m 





ILetjjjig: F. A. BROCKHAUS. 

iaefa lorfe: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 

Btmtbag: E. SEYMOUR HALE. 



KEY 

TO THE 

QUESTIONS CONTAINED IN 

WEST'S ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH 
GRAMMAR 

AND 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
FOR BEGINNERS 



CA 



cv 



Cfi 





BY r Educate 



A. S. WEST, M.A. 

TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. 



CAMBRIDGE: 

AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 

1901 

[All Rights reserved.] 



\ 



(Eambrfage: 

PRINTED BY J. & C. F. CLAY, 
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 






Throughout the following pages I am indebted to 
Professor Skeat's Etymological Dictionary for the derivation 
of words, and to the Century Dictionary for many of the 
quotations illustrating their use. I have also consulted 
the text-books of other writers on English Grammar, 
especially those by Mr Nesfield and the late Mr Mason. 

A. S. W. 

Ealing, 

January ist, 1901. - •- 



KEY 

TO QUESTIONS IN 

THE ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



* # * The references are to pages and sections of The Elements of 
English Grammar . 



CHAPTER II. P. 19. 

1. Castra, Chester, Chesterfield, Manchester, Lancaster, Leicester; 
colonia, Lincoln, Colchester; fossa, Fosdyke, Fossebridge; portus, 
Portsmouth, Devonport ; strata, Stratford, Streatham ; vallum, 
Walton. 

2. Frail, fragile; penance, penitence; sure, secure; poor, pauper ; 
ransom, redemption. 

3. Private (Lat. privatus), regal (Lat. regalis), history (Lat. his- 
toria, Gk. iaTopta), blaspheme (through Lat. from Gk. j3\aa<p7)fAeiv). 
See p. 13. 

4. Declare, glory, firmament, language, voice, line, tabernacle, 
chamber, rejoiceth, circuit, perfect, converting, testimony, sure, simple, 
statutes, rejoicing, commandment, pure (the prefix en- in enlightening 
is Fr. from L. in), enduring, judgments, desired, fine, servant, keep- 
ing (?), reward, errors, secret, faults, keep (?), servant, presumptuous, 
dominion, innocent, transgression, meditation, acceptable, redeemer. 

5. See pp. 10—14, §§ 15—19. 

6. Spreading out, putting together, laughable, strength, sinking, 
go away, sin, height, likelihood, good. 

7. (1) Latin: (2) Keltic. 

Modern Frisian (still spoken in Friesland, Holstein and Schleswig) 
is most nearly allied to English. Other kindred Low German languages 
or dialects are Dutch, Flemish (spoken in Flanders), and Plattdeutsch. 

8. Car, Keltic; caster, Latin; by, Danish; coin, Latin, 



8 ENGLISH VOCABULARY, Pp. 19—21. 

9. See note in text. 

10. The old man trusts wholly to finding the right path slowly and 
getting forward step by step. The youth reckons on making his way 
by mother wit, strength, and headlong haste. The old man worships 
forethought. The youth gives himself up to daring and luck. Old men 
look with anger on the recklessness of youth, and youth looks down 
upon the wariness of old men. 

11. (1) Under the head of conquest, mention should be made of 
Danish influence (p. 18, § 22) and of Norman-French influence (pp. 11 — 

13. § n)- 

(2) Examples of words introduced through commercial intercourse 
may be found as early as the Latin of the Second Period (p. 11, § 16), 
but are naturally most numerous in Modern English, from a.d. 1500 
onwards. Our vocabulary has been enlarged by borrowings from most 
nations with which we have had commercial or political relations 
(p. 19, § 23). 

(3) Of the words which we owe to literary influence, — words 
borrowed from books, — most numerous examples occur in the Latin of 
the Fourth Period (p. 13, § 18). Many words of book-Latin were 
introduced also during the period between the Norman Conquest and 
the Revival of Letters, as Latin was the language of the learned 
professions. So too before the age of Chaucer (died A.D. 1400) many 
words had been borrowed from literary French. Since the Revival 
of Letters large numbers of Greek words have entered our language 
direct from ancient Greek (p. 17, § 21). The study of Italian literature 
(a.d. 1550 to 1650) resulted in the introduction of several Italian words. 

12. For the main constituents of the English language see 
Chapter II. pp. 9 — 19. The presence of these elements is readily 
accounted for by the series of historical events summarised on pp. 
7-8, § 12. 

13. (r) Keltic (p. 2, § 3). During the latter part of the Roman 
occupation (2) Latin also was in use in the neighbourhood of Roman 
military stations and in the services of the Christian Church. 

For the relationship of these languages to English see the Table, 
p. 29. 

14. Avon, see Q. 9, note in text, p. 20. Chester, p. 10, § 15. 
Grimsby, p. 18, § 22. Cloister, from Old French cloistre, Lat. claustrum, 
lit. 'enclosure,' one of the ecclesiastical words which we owe to the 
Norman-French (Latin of the Third, not the Second Period). Cherry, 
from O. Fr. cerise, Lat. cerasus, said to be derived from Cerasus, a town 
in Pontus, where the cherry-tree was native. The final s was dropped 
under the mistaken notion that it was a plural inflexion. Beef, p. 13, 
§ 17. Potion, poison, doublets of L,&t. potionem: cf. p. 13, § 18. 



ENGLISH VOCABULARY, Pp. 19—21. 9 

15. Keltic, p. 9, § 14; Scandinavian, p. 18, § 22. 

16. Chapter 11. passim-, e.g. p. 19, § 23. 

17. English — meanwhile, the, great, arose, he, strengthened, with : 
Latin {directly or through French) — fabric, gradually, revised, 

erased, indefatigable, industry: 

Greek {through French or Latin) — rhetorical, emphasized. 

18. Priest, Lat. presbyter from Gk. n pea fivT epos, 'an elder': Latin 
of Second Period, p. it, § 16. Bard, a word of Keltic origin, borrowed 
from Welsh. Fealty, p. 13, § 18. Punkah, Hindustani : English 
occupation of India. 

19. /Vrhaps in this neglected spot is laid 

Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire ; ■ 
Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed, 
Or waked to ecstasy the living lyre. Gray. 

20. See p. ]2, § 17. 

21. We mean that it conforms to English usages as regards in- 
flexion and pronunciation. We may describe as 'imperfectly naturalised,' 

(1) Nouns which retain foreign plural forms, e.g. datum, radius, 
appendix, phenomenon, beau, dilettante. 

(2) Words which retain their foreign pronunciation, e.g. vase, ballet, 
police, clique, quinine, mauve, reservoir, hauteur, crayon, mirage, 
bouquet, corps, trio. 

22. Frequently by making words from Greek elements (p. 17, § 21) 
especially for scientific purposes : e.g. theosophy, agnostic, protoplasm, 
abiogenesis. From Latin also we have continued to borrow since the 
Revival of Letters : e.g. evolution, cooperate, apiculture, expansion. 
In some cases hybrids have needlessly been formed : e.g. socialism, bicycle, 
autocar. Names of men have sometimes furnished us with the words 
we need: e.g. macadamize, mackintosh, mesmerism, ohm, dahlia, boycott, 
and of places, e.g. etna, hock, paramatta. 

23. See Chapter II. passim. Reference to the passage in Q. 10 
will show the difficulty of expressing abstract ideas in words of English 
origin. 



CHAPTER V. P. 52. 

1. K, surd, mute, guttural : d, sonant, mute, dental : z, sonant, 
spirant, dental: /, surd, spirant, labial: th (in thin), surd, spirant, 
dental : th (in thine), sonant, spirant, dental: m, sonant, (liquid), labial 
(and nasal). 



io ELEMENTARY SOUNDS, Pp. 52—53. 

2. Tags, dogs, staves, sods, slabs, jumped, crashed, stopped, 
flocked. See p. 49, § 54 (1). 

3. The following words illustrate the tendency of guttural sounds 
to be softened or to disappear altogether; enough, softening of initial g : 
/and way, disappearance of final guttural: rain, disappearance of 
medial guttural. In morrow, Old Eng. moi-wen, the guttural of the 
still older Eng. form moreen has been softened to w. See p. 50, 
§ 54 (2), i- 

The following words have suffered the loss of a letter or syllable 
at the beginning (called Aphaeresis): lord (the initial h), story, spite, 
uncle, dropsy. A syllable from the interior of the word has dropped 
out (called Syncope) in lord, peril, sexton, city, priest. The loss of a 
final syllable (called Apocope) is exemplified by the words uncle, miss. 
In petty, the final / of petit, not being sounded, ceased to be written. 
See p. 50 (2), i. 

Substitution of consonants is seen in the pairs zvarden and guardian, 
warrant and guarantee, English w appearing as French gu : compare 
war, guerre, Williatn, Guillaume. 

The d in thunder and gender is excrescent, i.e. it forms no part of the 
root of either word, but has crept in. A similar explanation applies to 
the b of 'tremble and the z of citizen. See p. 50 (2). ii. 

The following words exemplify Umlaut: linger, elder, vanity, 
kitchen. See p. 50 (3). 

Metathesis is shown in frith, Brummagem. See p. 51 (4). 

4. The place of the accent distinguishes their part of speech. 
Thus, affix, noun, affix, verb; contest, n., contest, vb.; frequent, adj., 

frequent, vb.; Augtist, n. , august, adj.; torment, n., torment, vb. ; 
refuse, n., refuse, vb. ; compact, n., compact, adj. ; desert, n., desert, vb. ; 
also n. , 'that which is deserved,' especially in plur. ; conjure, vb., 'to 
juggle,' conjure, vb., 'to entreat'; collect, n., 'a prayer,' collect, vb. ; 
minute, n., minute, adj. ; invalid, adj., invalid, n. 

5. Bondage, advertisement, balcony, ??iischievous,*acddemy , contrary. 
See p. 51 (5). When we meet with a word in a line of verse, we can 
point out the syllable on which the accent fell : e.g. 

' And every one threw forth reproaches rife 
Of his mischievous deeds.' Spenser, F. Q. hi. vi. 14. 

' Our wills and fates do so contrary run.' 

Shakespeare, Hamlet, hi. ii. 221. 

6. See p. 48, § 53. Superfluous letters in example are x (fox), 
q (quickly), c (city). 

7. For sounds represented by letter a see p. 58, § 59 (2). 



ELEMENTARY SOUNDS, Pp. 52—53. n 

8. True diphthongs appear in noise, new, nozv, found, eye. The 
vowel sounds of pain and yeo- in yeoman are also diphthongal in 
standard modern English: see remarks on fate and. foe, p. 47. 

9. Canon, a rule of ecclesiastical doctrine, a church dignitary; 
cannon, a big gun : transport, noun; transport, vb. : decent, n. ; accent, 
vb. : dissent, n. and vb., the holding of (or to hold) a different opinion; 
descent, going down : ingenious, skilful ; ingenuous, frank : desert, a 
wilderness; desert, n., merit (usually in plural), vb., to abandon; dessert, 
the last course of fruits at dinner: virtue, moral goodness; vertu, 
in the phrase 'articles of vertu,' i.e. objects interesting to people of 
artistic taste, e.g. gems, medals, carving, &c : expert, n , a person 
of special knowledge of a subject; expert, adj., trained: supine, n., the 
verbal noun in Latin; supine, adj., listless. 

10. To the examples given on p. 13, add : — appreciate, appraise; ex- 
traneous, strange; gaud, joy; lection, lesson; potent, puissant; predicate, 
preach; private, privy; provident, prudent; provide, purvey; separate, 
sever; secure, sure. The following words are 'instances of doublets 
which have arisen from letter changes of various kinds :— attach, attack; 
adamant, diamond; cavalry, chivalry; church, kirk; dell, dale; esquire, 
squire; fancy, fantasy; gabble, jabber; granary, garner; hospital, 
hostel, hotel; human, humane; innocuous, innoxious; jealous, zealous; 
mister, master; parson, person; reward, regard; scandal, slander; 
skirmish, scrimmage; task, tax; treachery, trickery; vocal, vowel. 

11. Haul (fawn), yeast (feet), obey (fatal), guard (father), margarine 
(father, attend, fiat), tough (pwtty), guild (pit), said (pet), staid (fatal), 
feast (feet), earth (fur), pour (foemz.n), tour(foo\), busy (pit, pit), heifer (p<^t), 
sew (kman), fern (far), hood (pzzt), fiood (pz/tty), pretty (pz't), what (pot), 
feopard (p<?t), gaol (fatal), h^z'r (fairy), dove (pz/tty), wool (put), bouquet 
{put, fatal), any (p^t), people (fe?t), gamboge (pat, fool), canvas (pat, 
attend), martyr (father, attend), syrup (pit, attend), furlough (far, 
fomian), d<?ter (p^t, far), brewer (fool, attend), widow (pit, pillow), 
reality (fe<?t, pat, pz't, pz't), azmt (father), sazzce (fawn), abate (attend, 
fatal), oppress (pillow, p<t), machm^ry (attend, feet, attend), mz'schfevozzs 
(pz't, pz't, pzztty), attack (attend, pat), foreign (pot, pit), proclamation 
(pot, attend, fatal, attend), professor (pillow, p*?t, attend), company 
(pz^tty, attend, pz't), z'nfiWnza (pz't, p^t, attend). 



CHAPTER VI. P. 60. 

1. See p. 33, § 36 and note to Q. 1 in text. 

2. Fz't, fz'r, fz'ne, machz'ne. — But, put, rule, fur, use. — Fiend, 
frzVnd, dz>, mischzVf. — QuanzVty, na/z'on. — Ache, mnch, mac/zine, loch. 



12 SIGNS OR LETTERS, Pp. 60—61. 

3. Ball, hawk, frost, twzegh, aught, br<?ad. — Want, fawlt, know- 
ledge. — yust, plun^, solaz'er, Greenwich. — His, scissors, zeal, czzx, 
Xmsiness. — Miss, sense, schism, sword, psalm, fasten, city, dance. 

4. .Psalm, /tarmigan, phthisis, pneumatic, recei/t. — Lam£, limb, 
clim£, tomb, thum^, bdellium. — Sigh, weigh, plough, though, throng, 
cau^t, thou^/zt, might, Hugh. — Lis/en, whis/le, soften. — Cou/d, wou/d, 
shou/d, fo/k, wa/k, ca/m, ca/f. 

5. (1) Day (A. S. dag), only (A.S. dnlic), barley (A.S. barlic), 
sorrow (A.S. sorge). way (A.S. weg), bridge (A.S. brycg), eye 
(A.S. edge). 

(2) murder (A.S. morthor: the English form murther has only 
recently become obsolete), could (A.S, ciithe: cf. uncouth), fiddle 
(A.S. Jithele), Bedlam (corruption of Bethlehem, the hospital of St Mary 
of Bethlehem in London), burden (the form burthen still survives). 

(3) Loss of letters at the beginning (Aphaeresis) : spy (espy), 
strange (estrange, Lat. extraneum), squire (esquire), ticket (cf. etiquette), 
van (caravan), van-guard (Fr. avant-garde), ostler (hostler, the keeper 
of a hostel or inn). 

Loss of letters from the interior (Syncope): head (A.S. heafod), 
crown (Lat. corona), parrot (Fr. perroqtiei), woman (A. S. zuifman), 
fortnight (for fourteen-night), sennight (for seven-night), venom (Lat. 
venerium, poison), idolatry (for idolo-latry, Gk. eldojXoXarpeia, service 
to idols). 

Loss of letters at the end (Apocope): riches (Fr. richesse), canter 
(for Canterbury gallop, the pace of the pilgrims riding to the shrine of 
St Thomas), page (Lat. pagina, a written page), pill (Lat. pilnla, 
a little ball). 

For other examples refer to p. 10 of the Key, Q. ?,. 

(4) Insertion of b : humble (cf. Lat. humilis), number (cf. Lat. 
numerus), chamber (cf. Lat. camera), slumber (A.S. siurna, cf. Ger. 
sch/ummem), also in \imb, thumA crum#, numb (A.S. Urn, thuma, 
cruma, numen, pp. of niman). 

Insertion of d: thunoer (A.S. thunor, cf. Ger. donner, Lat. tonare), 
gender (Fr. genre, Lat. genere, abl. of genus), sound? (Fr. son, cf. Lat. 
sonus), riband (ribbon), jaundice (Fr. jaimisse), kinored (for kin-red, 
where -red is a suffix, as in hat-red). 

See p. 50, § 54 (2), ii. 

6. Doubt and debt, coming from French doute, dette, were formerly 
spelt without the b, which was pedantically inserted at the Revival of 
Letters to show their connexion with Lat. dubitare, debere. The p in 
receipt (Lat. receptum, but Fr. recette) should have been dropped, as 
in deceit, conceit. Hymn, chronicle, psalm follow the spelling of Greek 
originals (vfxvos, xP 0VlK Q-> 'annals,' \pa\jx6s). Hour retains the h of Latin 



SIGNS OR LETTERS, Pp. 60—61. 13 

hora. Viscount, originally Lat. vice, in place of, comitem, ace. of comes, 
a count : the s in vis- (vice-) is no longer sounded and in French vicomte 
is no longer written. Know, A.S. endwan: cf. Gk. yt.-yi><jb(TK€U'. 

Further examples will be found in the answer to Q. 4 (Key, p. 12). 
Phthisis and pneumatic are spelt in accordance with their Greek 
originals. The initial p in ptarmigan (Gaelic iarmachan) may have 
been added from a mistaken notion that the word was derived from 
the Greek. 

Add the following illustrations: — answer (A.S. and-, against, 
stverian, speak, swear), £nife (A.S. cnif, cf. Fr. canif), /£nave (cf. Ger. 
knabe), who (A. S. hwd, cf. Ger. we)-), whole (cognate with hale, the w 
being a modern addition), sprite (A. S. writan), wrong (connected with 
wring, to wrest, pervert), condemn, sign, deig/z (cf. Lat. digitus), 
indirt, heir (cf. Lat. heres), foreign (Low Lat. foraneus, from foras, out 
of doors; g wrongly inserted), snence, scythe (AS. sithe; c inserted 
at Revival of Letters as if of classical extraction), snssors (not from 
Lat. scindere but Fr. cisoires, shears), sr/zism (Gk. ax^fia), post- 
humous (Lat. postumus, the latest-born; h absurdly inserted as if from 
post humum, 'after the father is in the ground'), is\e (Lat. insula), 
inland (A.S. igland; s inserted from isle with which island has no 
etymological connexion), hau/boy (Fr. hautbois high wood, a wooden 
musical instrument with a high tone), jeopardy (Fr. jeu parti, a divided 
game, i.e. with equal chances, hence, risk), co/onel (through Fr. from 
Ital. colonello, lit. a little column, Lat. columnd), mnemonics (Gk. 
fAvrj/xoviKd), physiognomy (ultimately Gk. (puais, nature, yvu/xuv, an 
interpreter). 

7. (1) Diphthongal i (fine), u (twne), x (box). 

(2) th (thin), th (Mine), sh (Mine), ch (chasm), oa (foam), ough 

(though), wr (wreak), ph (photograph), tig (singing). 

(3) /sound: /ill,//$iloso//zy, sti^j laugh, half: 

sh sound: shy, Maise, vem'on, notion, ocean, social, con- 
science, schedule. 

(4) s in sin, rauin— g in gum, gem — x in box, exert, Aenophon. 

(5) redundant letters : excrescent b in \\mb, thum£, exumb, 

numb : I in cou/d. 
For silent letters see answer in Key to Q. 4. 

8. If we wrote ^ronometer, /antom, ;wmatism, the connexion of 
these words respectively with Greek xpo^os, (f>dvTaa/j.a, pevfxa (stem 
pev/ACLT-) would be obscured. If we wrote vishiate, onour (omitting 
initial h) their connexion with Latin vitium, honos (ace. honorem) 
would be obscured. 

9. Debt, see answer in Key to Q. 6. In wetter the doubling of the 
consonant shows that the vowel is short. Pair has an i because it 



14 SIGNS OR LETTERS, Pp. 60—61. 

reaches us through the Fr. paire although the Latin original is par. 
Favour and similar words from a Latin source through a French 
channel have u, e.g. labour, honour, humour, odour, the ending in 
French being -etir. Words of this class borrowed direct from Latin 
are written in English with -or, e.g. stupor, tremor, torpor, and there is 
a growing disposition to revert to the original Latin forms in other 
cases, writing color, favor, humor, as we already write error. Number, 
see answer in Key to Q. 5 (4). Rhyme should be written rime as in Old 
English. At the Revival of Letters the spelling rhyme was introduced, 
owing to a wrong notion that the word was connected with Greek 
pvd/xbs, rhythm : on the contrary it is of English origin. Blackai?wor, 
i.e. black Moor, has a connecting particle to facilitate pronunciation. 
See p. 50, § 54 (2), ii. 

10. Anomalies of English spelling are illustrated in § 59, p. 58. 
To the examples of uncertain orthography given on p. 61, add the 

following: — leap^/, leap/; dreamt, dream/; sh^w, shew; z'nclose, en- 
close; msure, ensure; labour, labor; forgo, forego, and fordo, foredo, 
(on which see p. 203, § 217, for- in English prefixes); centra, center; 
connexion, connexion ; medieval, medieval ; gaol, jail ; phenomenon, 
phenomenon; programme, program; r^/me, rime. 

11. Medieval, also written mediceval. It is a coined word from 
Lat. medius, middle, ceviim, age. The form in ce is thus nearer to the 
original but need not be pedantically adhered to. We always write 
coeval, equal. 

12. See p. 59, § 61. 

CHAPTER VII. P. 68. 

1. Count, 1. verb, 2. noun, 3. vb., 4. n. Date, 1. vb., 2. n. Race, 

1. n., 2. n. used as adj., 3. vb. Tender, 1. n., 2. adj., 3. vb., 4. adj. 
Spot, 1. n., 2. n. used as adj., 3. vb. Worth, 1. vb., 2. adj., 3. n. 
Fell, 1. adj., 2. vb., 3. n., 4. n. or vb. (past tense of fall). Light, 1. n., 

2. adj. Alight, 1. adv. or adj., 2. vb. While, 1. adverbial conjunc, 2. n., 

3. vb. Above, 1. adj., 2. adv., 3. prep. Outside, 1. adj., 2. n., 3. adv. 
Down, 1. prep., 2. adj., 3. adv. Deck, 1. n., 2. n. used as adj., 3. vb. 
Past, 1. adv., 2. prep., 3. n., 4. adj. (from past participle). Steam, 
1. n. used as adj., 2. n., 3. vb. 

2. Round: adj. : I will a round unvarnished tale deliver. 

noun : They cooked a round of beef. 

adv. : The longest way round is the shortest way home. 

prep. : Put a rope round the post. 

verb : Our little life is rounded with a sleep. 

To-morrow the ship will rotmd Cape Horn. 



ETYMOLOGY, P. 68. 15 

Close : verb : Close the door, the shutters close. 

The debate will close at six o'clock, 
noun : He arrived at the close of day. 

The dean lives in the close. 
adj.: The air is damp, and hushed, and close. 
adv. : Draw the curtains close. 
Equal', adj.: My praises are equal to your merits. 

noun : The ancients were our equals in valour, 
verb: No other dramatist equals Shakespeare. 



3. See p. 66, § 69, and p. 65, § 68. 



4. Verbs and nouns are the most important — verbs to supply the 
means of making assertions, and nouns to name the things about which 
the assertions are made. Interjections are obviously of the least 
importance. Next to Interjections, Adverbs could best be spared. 
Instead of saying nozu, here, yesterday, often, well, slowly, we could say 
at the present time, at this place, on the previous day, on many occasions, 
in a good style, in a slow manner. 

5. Who {pron.) knows {vb.) not {adv.) that (conj.) Truth {noun) is 
{verb) strong? {adj.) 

6. Match: noun: I am no match for you in skill. 

These matches ignite only on the box. 
verb : No one can match him in argument. 
Mangle: verb: They mangled the corpses. 
noun : His mother keeps a ??iangle. 

Pile: noun: The bridge is built on piles. 
The cathedral is a noble pile. 
They raised a pile of stones. 
This velvet has a long pile. 
verb: Pile the faggots. 

Punch : verb : Punch a hole through the metal plate. 
I am inclined to punch your head, 
noun: These holes were made with a punch. 
1 gave him a punch in the ribs. 
My horse is a stout Suffolk punch. 
Mr Micawber ms.de punch for the party. 
The children enjoyed Punch and Judy. 

Row : verb : Row the boat, mariners ! 

noun : We went for a row on the lake. 
The soldiers stood in a row. 
The students made a great row (slang). 



16 ETYMOLOGY, P. 68. 

7. Own : adj. : I saw it with my owit eyes. 

verb : He owns a large estate. 

I own the soft impeachment. 
That: pron. (demonstrative): You are no judge of that. 
pron. (relative) : The book that you lent me is lost, 
adj. : That statement is untrue, 
conjunc. : I am certain that he said so. 
Quick: adj. : She was quick in reading character, 
adv. : He returned as quick as thought, 
noun : The field is fenced with quick. 
Judge: noun: No man ought to be a judge in his own cause, 
verb: It is not ours to judge, — far less condemn. 

8. Noun. — He abused me behind my back. 

Verb. — I shall back Cambridge in the boat race. 

The train backed into the station. 
Adverb. — The crowd were kept back by the police. 
Adjective. — The assassin escaped by the back door. 



CHAPTER VIII. P. 77. 

1. Island, Com. Concr. — Somerset House, Prop. Concr. — hope, 
Sing. Abstr. {e.g. Hope springs eternal in the human breast), or Com. 
Concr. (e.g. Our very hopes belied our fears). — a Nero (i.e. a cruel 
sovereign like Nero) Prop, used as Com. Concr. — fleet, Com. Collect. 
Concr. — the last Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sing. Concr. — truth, Sing. 
Abstr. (i.e. trueness; e.g. Truth is the highest quality in Art), or Com. 
Concr. (i.e. true things ; e.g. Speak the truth. These are fundamental 
truths). — universe, Sing. Concr. — chlorofor7n, Com. Concr.— friendship, 
Sing. Abstr. (e.g. They were united in friendship), or Com. Concr. 
(e.g. He is a man of few friendships). — nobility, Sing. Abstr. (i.e. noble- 
ness; e.g. True nobility is derived from virtue), or Com. Concr. (i.e. 
nobles: e.g. The king offended the nobility). 

2. (a) August (the month), boycott, epicure, guillotine, Jacobite, 
negus, philippic (from the celebrated orations of Demosthenes against 
Philip of Macedon), simony, dunce. 

(b) Bayonet, calico, canter, damask, damson (Damascene plum), 
milliner, spaniel. 

3. Newspapers, documents, examination papers; kinds of tea; 
fragments of stone ; forests; the sea- shore ; medicinal salts. 

4. A noun is the name of a thing. The paper on which I am 
writing is a thing, not a name. The name paper is a noun. 



NOUNS, Pp. 77—79. 17 

5. Examples of Collective nouns: — nation, fleet, senate, shoal, jury, 
committee. 

Examples of Names of Materials: — clay, wheat, snow, bread, gin, 
dew, arsenic, bacon. 
See p. 75, §§ 76, 77. 

6. Herd, library, flock, swarm, gang, nosegay or bouquet, band, 
choir, team, pack, parliament or senate. 

7. See p. 76, § 78. (1) fcee-dom, da.rk-ness, dear-th, (2) wed-loch, 
grow-th, judg-ment, (3) witch- craft, owner-ship, master-^. See p. 77, 
§ 80. 

8. Concrete. Our nineteenth century is the age of tools. 
Abstract. The tree is of unknown age. 

Con. I gave it to z. youth, a kind of boy. 

Abs. Youth is the season of credulity. 

Con. These statements are fictions, not facts. 

Abs. Works of fiction secure a large sale. 

Con. He has published a volume of bad poetry. 

Abs. There is poetry and beauty in the common lives around us. 

Con. Some of the paintings are very fine. 

Abs. Painting is silent poetry. 

Con. The beliefs of savages are often superstitious. 

Abs. Belief admits of all degrees, from slight suspicion to full 
assurance. 

Con. His son has gained a scholarship at Oxford. 

Abs. He is a man of profound scholarship. 

Con. The duke entertained royalty last week. 

Abs. There is no true royalty but in the rule of our own spirits. 

9. Charity, 1. Con. 2. Abs. Necessity, 1. Abs. 2. Con. Inven- 
tion, 1. Abs. 2. Con. Form, 1. Abs. 2. Con. Curiosity, 1. Con. 
2. Abs. J3ravery, Abs. Life, 1. Abs. 2. Con. Time, 1. Con. 2. Con. 
Trial, 1. Abs. 2. Con. 3. Con. Hardship, 1. Abs. 2. Con. Resolution, 
1. Con. 2. Abs. Thought, 1. Abs. 2. Con. 3. Abs. Government, 1. 
Abs. 2. Con. Nobility, 1. Con. 2. Abs. Society, 1. Con. 2. Abs. 
Reason, 1. Abs. 2. Con. Passion, 1. Abs. 2. Con. 

10. («) The noun terror is originally Abstract. As the name of 
a ship it has become a Concrete Proper noun. 

(b) nobility, originally Abstract, has become Concrete, signifying 
'noblemen.' 

{c) noise, Abstract; thunder, Common Concrete; courage, Abstract. 

11. (a) See for examples answers to Q. 8 and Q. 9 above. 

(b) See p. 73, § 75, and for additional examples under first head 
see Q. 12 below, and under second head see Q. 2 above. 

W. E. G. K. 2 



1 8 NOUNS, Pp. 77—79- 

12, For some of these Proper names it is impossible to substitute 
Common nouns which are really equivalents. Thus in Gray's line 
Cromwell means 'one who possessed Cromwell's ability and force 
of character, but was guiltless of his country's blood.' Again, if 
we replace Hercules by ' strong man ' and Timon by ' misanthrope,' 
we lose the force of ' second ' and ' new.' By ' a second Hercules ' 
and ' a new Timon ' we mean more than ' a second strong man ' or 
'a new misanthrope.' Paraphrases of the following type must be 
employed: — 'A devout believer resembling Paul in Christian faith.' — 
' An athlete who is a match for Hercules in strength.' — ' A misanthrope 
in whom Timon seemed to be restored to earth.' — ' A dandy suggestive 
of Adonis grown fat.' — ' A financial strategist.' — ' A mighty hunter.' — 
' A lyric poetess of Sappho's stamp.' — ' A wise judge.' (Daniel convicted 
the Elders of ' false witness by their own mouth.' History of Susannah 
and the Elders, v. 45. He also detected the imposture of the priests of 
Bel. History of Bel and the Dragon. ) 

13. (a) Height, weariness, decency, cruelty, justice, justness, truth, 
gentleness, gentility, plurality, bravery, honesty, sublimity, wisdom : 

(b) Enchantment, forbearance, abstinence, stealth, wedlock, girth, 
growth, knowledge, departure : 

(c) Childhood, gluttony, hatred, horsemanship, heroism. 



CHAPTER IX. P. 85. 

1. Mayoress, cow-calf, murderess, milkmaid, ogress, peahen, 
marchioness, testatrix, czarina, sultana, vixen, countess. 

2. Hart, stag, monk or friar, earl, landlord, buck-rabbit, abbot, 
traitor, margrave, bachelor, bridegroom, lad. 

3. Heroine, giantess, sorceress, ewe, hind. — Drake, bullock or 
steer, gander, emperor, executor. 

4. (1) Cousin, friend, fowl, child, baby, pupil, pig, spouse. 

(2) See p. 82, § 86, first paragraph. 

(3) See p. 84, §89. 

(4) Add — coquette, dowdy, jilt, prude, termagant. 

5. Earth, Moon, Night, Nature, Justice, Liberty. 



CHAPTER X. P. 92. 

1. Germans, Dutchmen, Normans, stories, storeys, octavos, roofs, 
reefs, cuckoos, buffaloes, formulae and formulas, radii, crocuses, data, 
axes, appendices, genera, series, virtuosi, criteria, mesdames, dilettanti. 



NUMBER, Pp. 92—93- *9 

2. Jays, journeys, difficulties, colloquies, chiefs, staffs and slaves, 
quartos, dies and dice, cloths and clothes, halves, sons-in-law, Misses 
Williams and Miss Williamses. 

3. Butterflies, shelves, wharfs and wharves, oxen, men-of-war, 
oases, indexes and indices, similes, automata, strata, foci and focuses, 
caucuses, termini, cargoes, portmanteaus. 

4. See p. 90, § 93 (4). Add copper, pi., pence and halfpence; 
force, pi., troops; water, pi., medicinal springs; return, pi., statistics; 

minute, pi. , record of proceedings at meeting ; sand, pi. , sea-shore. 

5. Dynamic, optic, metaphysic, physic, politic. See p. 90, § 93 
(3), last paragraph: Physic means the science of medicine, physics 
means natural philosophy. 

6. Strifes, topazes, solos, echoes, Marys (rarely Maries), fifes, 
bureaux, elks, species, ellipses, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses and 
hippopotami. 

See p. 90, § 93 (5). There is variety of usage in the plural forms of 
the following nouns also : 

Singular. Plural. 

Colour Colours, (1) hues, (2) regimental flag. 

Custom Customs, (1) habits, (2) import duties. 

Effect Effects, (1) results, (2) goods and chattels. 

Manner Manners, (1) ways, (2) behaviour. 

Quarter Quarters, (1) fourth parts, (2) lodgings. 

Spectacle Spectacles, (1) sights, (2) eye-glasses. 

Add letter, premise, vapour, force. 
See p. 89, § 93 (2). 

7. See preceding answer. 

8. Medicinal or smelling salts, powers or troops, fetters or fire- 
irons, the whole of what is contained (e.g. in a book or parcel), a game 
or currents of wind, oxen. 

9. Alms, see p. 89, § 93 (2). Rightly sing, as in Acts iii. 3, ( an 
alms,' but perhaps usually pi. now. Banns, pi. of ban, a proclamation; 
with spelling banns, a proclamation of marriage. Optics, see p. 90, 
§ 93 (3), last paragraph. Poultry, collective noun, so sing, or pi. e.g. 
'Poultry is cheap to-day,' 'Poultry are fetching poor prices.' Scissors, 
pi., see p. 91, § 93 (7). Sheep, sing, or pi. according to circum- 
stances. Neuter nouns with a long vowel in A.S. underwent no 
change of form in the plural. Sheep, deer, swine were nouns of this 
character; hence they take no plural inflexion in modern English. 
Salmon, though from a Latin source, takes no plural suffix. The same 
is the case with trout, cod, grouse. These words are used both as sing, 
and pi. Sixpence, collective, used as sing, and forming a plural : e.g. 

2 — 2 



20 NUMBER, Pp. 92—93. 

'Can you give me two sixpences for a shilling?' Thanks, plur. of 
thank: cf. 'If ye love them which love you, what thank have ye?' 
(Luke vi. 32.) 

10. See p. 90, § 93 (5). 

11. Innings is really pi. but is always used as sing. — Gallows, really 
pi., always used as sing. — Tidings, pi. and so used. — Barracks, pi. and 
so used. — Odds, really pi., used both as sing, and pi. — Alms, see 
answer to Q. 9 above. — Summons, sing, in form and use. The final s 
in summons is due to the Fr. original, semonce, ' a warning ' (not to the 
Lat. siwimoneas, to which the word has sometimes been wrongly 
traced). Summons has a pi. summonses. 

Thus the only verb which is wrong in the seven sentences is has 
after barracks. 

12. Strictly eaves, alms, riches are sing, and tidings, news, means 
are plur. See p. 89, § 93 (2) and (3). An alternative origin has been 
suggested for news, viz. that it is not a plural form, but represents the 
A.S. genitive sing, in hxv&t niwes, 'what of new?' Cf. Lat. auid novi? 

See p. 90, § 93 (6), and p. 91 (7). 

13. News, sing. p. 89, § 93 (3); ethics, sing., p. 90 (3), last para- 
graph; summons, sing., see answer to Q. 11 above; the odds, sing, or 
pi., see answer to Q. 11; gentry, noun of multitude, used with plural 
verb ', fish, sing, or pi. {e.g. 'Fish is scarce,' 'The fish are shy ' ) ; _/?r<?- 
arms, pi.; tongs, pi., p. 91 (7). 

14. (1) See p. 89, § 93 (3). Add innings, gallows. 

(2) gentry, poultry, people, cattle, ver??iin. But people is used 
in the plural to denote different nations. 

15. See p. 91 (8). 

16. Pailfuls, forget-me-nots, spendthrifts, lords-lieutenant, runaways, 
poets-laureate, hangers-on, maids-in- waiting, will -o'- the -wisps, four- 
in-hands, valets-de-chambre, envoys extraordinary, ministers plenipo- 
tentiary. 

17. Men-servants, maid - servants, men -of- all -work, passers-by, 
lookers-on, onlookers, castaways, princes-consort, lords-justices, camel- 
drivers. 

18. Correct thus: — phenomenon, octopoda, stratum. The element 
pus in octopus, polypus, is Gk. irois, pi. 7r65es : of octopus, polypus 
modern Lat. neut. pi. forms have been made, octopoda, polypoda, and 
also sing, forms octopod, polypod, preserving the true stem pod-, with 
Eng. plur. forms octopods, polypods. The forms octopi, polypi are how- 
ever often used. 



CASE, Pp. ioo— 102. 21 

CHAPTER XL P. ioo. 

1. John noni. , Thomas obj. — Thomas now., John obj. — Thomas 
nom., coachman's poss., brother noni. {apportion), John obj., gardener 
obj. {app.). — Thomas-the-coachman's poss , brother nom., John obj. — 
me direct obj., friend obj. — me {i.e. for me) indir. obj., cab. <?/>/. — people 
nom., Balbus obj., consul obj. 

2. Wolsey the chancellor lost the king's confidence. 
Wolsey's, the chancellor's, tenure of office came to an end. 
Domestic affairs contained little to interest Wolsey the chancellor. 
Wolsey the chancellor's. 

3. Goodness', Socrates', Burns's, Debenham and Freebody's, his 
sister Mary's, his sisters Mary and Rose's, hero's, heroes', goose's, 
geese's, the Prince of Wales's, the Princes of Wales's, the Duke of 
Beaufort's, the Dukes of Beaufort's, child's, children's, sheep's, foot- 
man's, footmen's, Norman's, Normans', Englishman's, Englishmen's. 

Forms such as the Princes of Wales 's, the Dukes of Beaufort's are 
rarely used. We should probably say of the Princes of Wales, of the 
Dukes of Beaufort. 

4. Songstress, marchioness, belle; wizard, hart, sloven; sheep, 
sheaves, cargoes, cameos. 

5. For Plural forms see p. 86, § 91. 

Brethren, p. 88, § 92, III. 2. Riches, p. 89, § 93 (2). Chickens 
contains no anomaly; it is a proper plural form of chicken, diminutive 
of cock (as kitten of cat). The anomaly is in the provincial use of 
chicken as if it were a plural like oxen or children. 

6. Rules for formation of possessive case are given on p. 98, § 98. 

7. Definition, p. 95, § 95. Cases in English, pp. 96 — 7, §§ 96 — 7. 

8. Socrates', captain's, conscience', who's (the apostrophe marks 
the unusual plural, not possessive: similarly we should write 'Parse all 
the as's and that's in the sentence'), Officers'. A Widows and Orphans 
Fund signifies a Fund for (not of) Widows and Orphans: Widows and 
Orphans therefore take no apostrophe. 

9. Spinsters', nieces', geese's, sultanas', vixens', peahens', count- 
esses', hostesses', nanny-goats', jenny-asses', wives', abbesses', widows', 
marchionesses', ducks'. 

10. See p. 98, § 98. 

Reason's, day's, money's are the only true possessive forms. Reason 
is personified : the idea expressed is possession. In What a love of a 
baby! the relation of the words of a baby is appositional: we mean, 
'What a love! namely, a baby!' The relation expressed by the 
possessive form day's is connexion, — a journey connected with a day: 



22 ADJECTIVES, Pp. 109— in. 

see definition of Possessive Case, p. 97. The relation of the words of 
feeling is adjectival : ' a man of feeling' is 'a sensitive man.' In money s 
worth the relation may be called possessive : worth or value is a quality 
which my money possesses just as John's industry is a quality which 
John possesses. 

11. See p. 100, § 100. 



CHAPTER XII. P. 109. 

1. Definition, p. 103, § 102. 

Every, demonstr., right, qualit., his, pronom. possess., own, qualit. 
Class of adjectives not represented above : Quantitative, see p. 105, 
§ 105, 2. 

2. No, it marks the quality of a thing: a black sheep is a black 
animal, not a black noun. 

3. See p. 103, § 102. 

Droop'd (participle used as adj.), low, last, red, heavy (or adv. for 
heavily), like, first. (Slow is used here as adv. for slowly.) 

4. A , Demonstr. adj. sometimes called Indef. Article. 
The, Demonstr. adj. sometimes called Def. Article. 
Qualitative: different, froward, rich, cherished, smileless. 
Pronominal : their, possessive. 

Quantitative : whole. 

6. For a and the see answer to Q. 4 above. 

1. Pronominal: my, possessive; such, demonstr. Qualitative: 
perfect. 

2. Ord. Num.: second; Qualitative: best. 

3. Quantitative, def., no ; Qual. : long, good. 

4. Pronom. : that, demonstr.; Qual.: best, superfluous; Quant, indef. 
all. 

5. Quant.: most, indef., l?vo, def. Qual.: wise, best. 

6. Pronom.: What, interrog. Qual. : great, public. 

7. Quant.: few, jnany, indef., seven, single, def.; Qual.: wise, 
poor, foolish. 

6. (1) Beautiful thoughts, tough mutton, new music. 

(2) Few thoughts, some mutton, no music. 

(3) These thoughts, such mutton, the music. 

7. Slavish, tempestuous, clayey, sensible, sensitive, senseless, 
manly, mannish, quarrelsome, sorry, golden, wretched, careful, careless, 
righteous, thoughtiul, thoughtless, fiery, silvery, silvern (archaic), 
courageous. 



ADJECTIVES, Pp. 109— in. 23 

8. (a) Good wine needs no bush. Small rain lays great dust. 

(b) Art is long, life is short. The night was dark. 

(c) There is but a step from the sublime to the ridiculous. 
Cultivate the simple and the natural in style. 

9. Eatable substances, valuable articles, incapable people, un- 
mentionable garments (a slang term for 'trousers'), vital organs, italic 
letters, sundry items, green vegetables, empty cases, brilliant jewels. 

Add ancients, moderns, equals, betters, sweets, bitters, bygones, 
moveables, surroundings. 

10. (a) See p. 106, § 106. 

None but the brave deserves the fair. 

He is a master of the pathetic (i.e. pathos) in fiction. 

Beat up the white (i.e. white part) of an egg. 

(b) Stone walls do not a prison make. 
The enemy lost three field guns. 

They have pulled down the garden wall. 

(c) The brothers are very much alike. 
I am not afraid. 

He was aghast as the spectre approached. 
Some authorities maintain that all true adjectives can be used 
attributively and accordingly class these words with adverbs. 

11. Put a before union, year, hotel, history, usurper and an before 
the rest. See p. 108, last paragraph. 

12. See p. 109, § 109 (3) and (4). A in 'a burnt child' means 
any. A in 'twice a day' means one: see note in text to Q. 12 and 
4 (a), p. 109. The in l the red flag' may be used with the meaning 
indicated in 3 (b), p. 109. 

13. (a) The is here an adverb: see p. 182, § 193, 3 (c) : cf. Lat. 
quo magis, eo melius. 

(b) Refer to p. 109, 3 (c), for use of the. 

(c) For a in ' a penny' refer to p. 109, 4 (a). 

In a piece, a is a corruption of the preposition on, but is now regarded 
as the article and the n inserted before a noun beginning with a vowel. 
Compare Tour hours a day' with 'four miles an hour.' The force of a 
is here distributive: l a penny a piece' means ' one penny for each 
person.' The words are usually written as one, apiece. Bearing in 
mind the origin of the prefix we may describe apiece as a prepositional 
phrase employed as an adverb. 

CHAPTER XIII. P. 117. 

1. See p. 114, § 113, 1. Add tender, slender, sober; noble, nimble, 
idle, gentle; thirsty, silly, happy, holy. 



24 INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES, P. 117. 

2. Sadder, saddest ; gayer, gayest ; freer, freest ; nigher, nighest, 
next; worse, worst; older, elder, oldest, eldest; more hateful, most 
hateful {rarely hatefullest) ; happier, happiest; outer, utter, outermost, 
uttermost, utmost ; more awry, most awry; former, foremost, first ; later, 
latter, latest, last; slyer, slyest; holier, holiest; farther, farthest; more 
virtuous, most virtuous ; drier, driest ; completer, completest ; bigger, 
biggest ; more honourable, most honourable. 

3. Put on your oldest coat. The town has lost its oldest in- 
habitant. He was succeeded by his eldest son. 

Have you heard the latest news? Did you read my last letter? 

She is the nearest and dearest of my friends. Her house is the 
nearest to mine. She is the next girl to me in class. Hers is the next 
house to ours. 

As the horses came round Tattenham corner, the favourite was much 
the furthest in front and the grey horse much the farthest in the rear. 

(In modern English however no attention is paid to the original 
difference of meaning in farthest and furthest. See remarks on farther 
and further, p. 116.) 

4. See p. 113, § 112. Common and despotic are the only adjectives 
in the list admitting in their strict sense of comparison. The following 
belong to the group mentioned in paragraph (i) of § 112, — universal, 
supreme, absolute, unique, eternal, boundless, and the following belong 
to the group mentioned in paragraph (ii), — ?nonthly, triangular, in- 
evitable, Etiropean. 

5. For these numerals see § 107, pp. 106 — 7. 



CHAPTER XIV. P. 132. 

1. The policeman accompanied the prisoner's sister to the prisoner's 
{or the policeman's) house and told the prisoner's sister that the prisoner's 
sister was to let the policeman know if the prisoner's sister received any 
further annoyance from the prisoner or the prisoner's confederates. 

His is pronominal in origin but adjectival in force in the context 
his house, his confederates. 

2. 1. Relative: Who {i.e. He who, the antecedent being sup- 
pressed); that (he that filches) ; which. 

Personal : it (in '/ is, V was), he, him : commonly called Third Personal 
Pronoun ; more accurately Demonstrative Pronouns of the Third Person 
(see Q. 3 below); me. 

Indefinite: something. (We may however regard something as itself 
a noun and exclude it from the class of pronouns, i.e. substitutes for 
nouns.) 



PRONOUNS, Pp. 132—133. 25 

Possessive : my, mine, his. (These are pronouns in origin but their 
force is adjectival.) 

Demonstrative: that (of that which). 

2. Interrogative: who. Personal: us, we. Reflexive: ourselves. 

3. Relative: whatsoever. Possessive: thine. Personal: it (see re- 
marks under headings Possessive, Personal, above). Demonstrative: 
these, used here as adjective. 

4. Personal:/. Reflexive : myself. (In / myself the force of myself 
is emphatic, not reflexive: in / despise myself, the force of myself is 
reflexive. See pp. 123—4, § I2 ^.) 

5. Relative: what {i.e. the things which). Distributive: everybody 
(but see remarks above on something). 

6. Indefinite : some, any. Relative : that. 

7. Personal : their, i.e. the sound of them : a true Personal use, 
not Possessive: see p. 122, § 124 (4). 

8. Indefinite: one. Demonstrative: this. For something see re- 
marks above. 

9. Interrogative : What. Possessive : ?ny (see remarks above). 
Personal: /. Indefinite: others. 

10. Relative: as. Personal: you. 

11. Interrogative: whether {i.e. which of two, archaic). Personal: 
them (see remarks above). Possessive : his (see remarks above). 

12. Indefinite : anythi?ig (but see remarks above on something). 

13. Demonstrative: That, none. Relative: which. Distributive: 
each. Personal : him. 

14. Personal: he. Relative: who, what. 

1 5. Demonstrative : That. Relative : that. Indefinite : another's. 

3. He and she indicate Third persons. Hence they have been 
classed with / and thou, which are respectively used for the First and 
Second persons. But the application of the words /and thou is always 
definite : their meaning is clear, complete, and free from ambiguity. 
The application of he or she on the contrary has to be determined from 
the context. When you and I are talking together there is no doubt 
who is indicated by thou and /, but he may change its meaning in every 
fresh sentence. He has the force of a Demonstrative pronoun. It 
serves as the substitute for a noun. In the sentence 'My brother came, 
but he is gone,' he is a substitute for ' brother.' But there are no nouns 
for which / and thou are substitutes. See p. ri8, § 120 (i) and p. 122, 
§ 124 (2). A further objection may be raised to classing // with 
Personal pronouns on the ground that its use is almost entirely confined 
to things. They may refer both to persons and to things. 

4. See p. 118, § 119; p. r2i, § 122. 

Ours, possessive ; that, demonstrative or relative ; which, relative 
or interrogative ; each, distributive. 



26 PRONOUNS, Pp. 132—133. 

5. Relative pronouns have the force of conjunctions (see p. 125, 
§ 1 28) : they join two clauses of a sentence together. Personal pro- 
nouns have no such force. Compare the following : 

(a) I, who was once a Radical, am now a Conservative. 
You, who saw the accident, described how it happened. 
My brother, who came, is gone. 
(6) I was once a Radical. I am now a Conservative. 

You saw the accident. You described how it happened. 
My brother came. He is gone. 
It must be observed that the relative pronouns in {a) are used with 
a coordinating, not a restrictive force (p. 128, § 130, 3). The sentences 
are therefore compound, not complex (p. 218, § 229, 8). 

6. See pp. 247—8, § 258. 

For omission of Relative see p. 126, and for use of but with force of 
Relative see p. 129, § 131. 

' The world A we live in.' ' Monarchs A I have met. ' 
'Who is there but makes mistakes sometimes?' 

'There breathes not clansman of thy line 
But would have given his life for thine.' 

7. See p. 248, last paragraph. 

8. See p. 122, § 124 (3), second paragraph. Besides his an 
uninflected form (h)it was in use as late as Shakespeare's time: e.g. 

'Do, child, go to it grandam, child.' {K. John, II. i. 160.) 
' The hedge-sparrow fed the cuckoo so long, 
That it's had it head bit off by it young.' {K. Lear, I. iv. 235.) 

In the last line it's is a contraction of it has. 

9. See p. 129, § 132. 

Used as Adjective: — One fool makes many. He moved from one 
side of the street to the other. They are all of one age. He tarried 
many days in Joppa with one Simon a tanner. 

Used as Noun : — The clock struck one. We are quite at one on this 
subject. Come in by ones or twos. 

Used as Pronoun : — One must try to do one's best. 

10. Either signifies 'one of two.' Say any one. 

The speaker's meaning probably is that John has one of his two dogs 
on one side of him and one on the other: say therefore 'with a dog on 
each side of him.' In its present context 'on either side' would be 
understood to signify 'on each side' (see p. 130, § 133, third paragraph), 
not 'on one side or the other.' Now if there are in all only two dogs, 
it is clear that these two dogs cannot be simultaneously on both sides. 
Both denotes a pair of objects taken together. 



VERBS, P. 140. 27 



CHAPTER XV. P. 140. 

1. We must rest the horses. — Don't push yourself forward. Will you 
push the door open? They are pushing the sale of a new soap. — Did 
she squeeze your hand? — Feed the hungry. Flattery feeds vanity. — 
Press the button. I will not press you to come. — Temperate habits 
lengthen life. — You must draw in your expenses. The engine can 
scarcely draw the train. The speaker drew a large audience. — Can 
you change a five-pound note? He changed countenance. — Pour out 
the wine. You are pouring oil on the troubled waters. — 1 must keep 
my promise. Keep the peace. He was a respectable man and kept a 
gig. Keep thy shop and thy shop will keep thee. — The carrier has 
removed my luggage. — The king recovered his senses. I recovered my 
lost property. 

2. Transitive tises'. — Strike a match. We made them strike their 
flag (i.e. haul it down as a sign of surrender). They struck the wrong 
path. How does the suggestion strike you? 

He shook his head. The cross-examination failed to shake the 
evidence of the last witness. 

Stop the cab. They stopped the soldiers' pay. 

Roll the map up. 

Mind that you boil the potatoes thoroughly. 

He survived his younger brother. The institution has survived its 
usefulness. 

Shall I wake him? 

The charge exploded and burst the cannon. 

The axle broke and upset the coach. Her illness has quite upset 
her plans. 

You should grow your own vegetables. 

Intransitive uses: — Strike across the field. The ship struck and 
sank. The cuttings have struck (i.e. taken root). The miners will strike 
for higher wages. 

The trees are shaking with the wind. 

What are you stopping for ? 

The ship rolls badly. 

See if the kettle boils. 

The race survives whilst the individual dies. 

Give him his medicine if he wakes. 

The charge exploded and the cannon burst. Six men burst into the 
room. 

The axle broke and the coach upset. 

Weeds grow apace. He has grown rich. His sons have grown up. 



28 VERBS, P. 140. 

3. Seep. 135, § 137; p. i 42 , § 145. 

Arrived, Intrs. Act. p. 143, § 146: ran, Intrs. Act. p. 137, § 139(4), 
last paragraph: overeats, Intrs. Act. icf. 'I overslept myself.' The verbs 
are not transitive: the pronouns represent indirect, not direct, objects. 
Thus He overeats himself signifies 'He eats too much to be good for 
himself? and I overslept myself signifies ; I slept too longer myself): 
is selling, Intrs. Act. in form but Passive in sense; see p. 144, § 148: 
swam, Trans. Act. : lay, Intrs. Act. 

4. Will, Intrs. Aux. of Incomp. Pred. rain, Intrs. (but also 
Trans, e.g. 'It will rain cats and dogs tomorrow'), Impers*. — will, Aux. 
or Notional (see p. 139, § 142), of Incomp. Pred. do, Trans. Notional. — 
will, Aux. of Incomp. Pred. succeed, Intrs. Notional. — may, Intrs. No- 
tional, of Incomp. Pred. call, Intrs. Notional, like, Trans. Notional. 
may. Intrs. Aux. of Incomp. Pied, be Intrs. Notional. — feels, Trans. 
Notional.— -feels, Intrs. of Incomp. Pred. Notional. — became, Intrs, of 
Incomp. Pred. Notional. — became, Trans, of Incomp. Pred. Notional. — 
shall, Intrs. of Incomp. Pred. Notional {shall is used here to express not 
mere futurity, but a command: hence it is not simply Auxiliary), go, 
Intrs. Notional. — shall, Intrs. of Incomp. Pred. Aux. go, as in pre- 
ceding sentence. — grows, Trans, of Incomp. Pred. Notional. — grows, 
Intrs. Notional. 

5. For examples of (1) see Q. 1 and Q. 2 of this Chapter. Add 
drop, set, spread, close, open, break, swim, toss, feel, follow, pp. 136 — 7. 

h) P- 137. § Hi- 



CHAPTER XVI. P. 167. 

1. Arose, arisen; beat, beaten; began, begun; bit, bitten; broke 
(archaic Brake), broken; burst, burst; climbed (archaic clomb), climbed ; 
clung, clung; came, come; did, done; drove (archaic drave), driven; 
fell, fallen; fought, fought: found, found; flung, flung; froze, frozen; 
gave, given; went (supplied from past tense of wend), gone; graved, 
graven or graved; ground, ground; heaved, heaved (archaic hove, 
hoven) ; helped, helped [archaic holpen) ; held, held (archaic holden) ; 
knew, known; melted, melted or molten; rode, ridden; rose, risen; 
ran, run ; saw, seen ; shaved, shaved or shaven; shot, shot ; sang, sung; 
sank, sunk; spoke (archaic spake), spoken; span, spun; sprang, sprung: 
stood, stood ; stole, stolen ; stung, stung ; stank, stunk ; struck, struck 
or stricken; swam, swum; swung, swung; took, taken; wound, wound; 
wrote, written. 

2. Brought, brought ; built, built (archaic builded) ; burnt, burnt 
#r burned, burned; bought, bought ; cost, cost; crept, crept; cut. cut; 
dealt, dealt; dwelt, dwelt; fed, fed; felt, felt; gilded or gilt, gilded or 



INFLEXION OF VERBS, Pp. 167—170. 29 

gilt ; hit, hit ; hurt, hurt; kept, kept ; knitted, knitted or knit ; led, led ; 
leapt, leapt; let, let; lost, lost; meant, meant; met, met; put, put; 
rapped, rapped; rid, rid; rotted, rotted; said, said; sold, sold; sent, 
sent ; set, set ; shed, shed ; shred, shred ; shut, shut ; slept, slept ; 
slit, slit; smelt, smelt ; spelt, spelt; spent, spent; spilt, spilled ; spit or 
spat, spit or spat ; split, split; spread, spread; sweat or sweated, sweat 
or sweated; swept, swept; taught, taught; told, told; thought, thought ; 
thrust, thrust ; wended or went, wended ; wetted, wetted ; whetted, 
whetted. 

3. Seeing, seen ; sawing, sawn ;. sewing, sewn or sewed ; suing, 
sued ; sitting, sat ; setting, set ; seething, sodden or seethed ; selling, 
sold; falling, fallen ; felling, felled; laying, laid; lying, lain {archaic 
lien) ; raising, raised ; rising, risen ; ringing, rung. 

4. We still speak of molten metal, mown grass, swollen glands, 
a shorn lamb. 

Shod ; lighted or lit ; worked or wrought ; knitted or knit ; sped. 

5. Fell, fallen; felled, felled; hoed, hoed; sang, sung; knotted, 
knotted; rode, ridden; knew, known; jumped, jumped; went, gone; 
tore, torn ; bore {archaic bare), born {i.e. produced), borne {i.e. carried) ; 
stole, stolen; sat, sat; slung, slung; wrung, wrung. 

6. Fly, flew; lie, lay; eat, ate; forsake, forsook; set, set; clothe, 
clothed or clad ; show, showed. 

7. Dying, dyeing, lying, forgetting, crediting, acquitting, severing, 
differing, inferring, stopping, hoping, worshipping, marvelling, singeing, 
grieving. For the doubling of the consonant in some words see 
p. 161 (/), 4. Words ending in -/double the / though not accented on 
the last syllable : also worship. 

8. Choose, chosen; swear, sworn; lie, lain {archaic lien); cast, 
cast ; spring, sprung ; awake, awoke or awaked ; grow, grown ; hide, 
hidden or hid. 

9. See p. 154, § 162. 

Participle. — Riding-hoxse, i.e. horse for riding, Gerund. — Gerunds. 
— Verbal Noun. — Participle. — Gerund. — Participle. — Gerund. — Riding- 
school, i.e. school for riding, Gerund. — Gerund. — Gerund. — Gerund. 

10. {a) Participle, {b) Verbal Noun, {c) Gerund, {d) Gerund : 
a writing-desk is a desk for writing. 

11. Darkling, adv. of manner, qualif. went', singing, participle, 
act. intrs. pres. lim. we: walking-sticks is a compound noun; walking 
taken alone as one element of the compound is a Gerund, act. intrs. 
{i.e. sticks for walking) : toiling, gerund, act. intrs. 



30 INFLEXION OF VERBS, Pp. 167—170. 

12. (1) The htuiting of the carted stag is a questionable form of 
sport. 

(2) He spends his leisure hunting for rare books. 

(3) In hunting for truffles, French farmers make use of pigs and 
dogs. 

13. See p. 149, § 157. In Old Eng. the Simple Infin. ended in -an, 
e.g. bind-an, ' the act of binding,' without to. This was a verbal noun. 
What we call the Gerundial Infin. was the dative case of this verbal 
noun, governed by the preposition to which preceded it : thus, to bind- 
anne, as in 'a book to bind.' With the loss of inflexions the difference 
of form between Simple and Gerundial infinitives disappeared and the 
use of to was extended to the Simple infinitive generally. But the 
difference of force still exists under identity of form : the expressions 
'A house to let' 'Scissors to grind,' 'Work to do? 'Food to eat,' 
contain Gerundial infinitives. 

14. (1) The rose would smell as sweet, i.e. the rose would be as 
sweet when it is smelt : smells, an active transitive verb used here with 
a passive meaning. See p. I44, § 148. Sweet may be an adverb 
identical in form with the adjective from which it is derived (see p. 182, 
§ 193, 1 {b) for mode of formation), or it may be regarded as an adjective 
describing the qualities of the rose rather than as an adverb describing 
the manner of its action. 

(2) See p. 149, §§ 156 — 7, and answer to Q. 13 above in Key. 

15. See p. 166 for scheme of tenses, and substitute go in 1st person 
for break in 3rd person of Table. 

16. See p. 157, 6, Uses of the Present Indefinite. Examples 
required will be found on p. 158 (2 — 4). Additional illustrations: 

(a) called the Historic Present : 

With ravished ears The monarch hears, 
Assumes the god, Affects to nod, 
And seems to shake the spheres. 

(b) Horace still charms with graceful negligence, 
And without method talks us into sense. 

(c) Duncan comes here to-night. 

17. In (1) had is a notional verb, meaning 'to be under physical 
or moral constraint,' and to go is a gerundial infinitive: cf. I had to 
refund the money ; I had much to do. 

In (2) had is also a notional verb, meaning 'to hold'; I had rather 
signifies ' I hold or regard as preferable,' and go is a simple infinitive 
without to. The infinitive in each example depends on the verb had. 

18. One form: burst, cost, hit, put, shut, split. 
Two forms : abide, bleed, come, feel, lose, sit. 
Three forms : begin, do, fall, rise, steal, swim. 



INFLEXION OF VERBS, Pp. 167—170. 31 

19. See p. 135, § 137. Transitive: in the active voice the sentence 
would be. 'We heard not a drum.' 

Fell, lay, set, raise. 

20. Cf. the following passage from Dickens, Our Mutual Friend, 
iv. 16, ' "And as concerning the nests and drawers," said Sloppy, after 
measuring the handle on his sleeve, and softly standing the stick against 
the wall, " why, it would be a real pleasure to me."' 

21. Transitive verbs: (see p. 142, § 145, at foot of page). 

'The Greeks were again attacked by the Persians, but no impression 
was made by them on the little army.' 

The original objects, Greeks, impression, have become subjects : the 
original subjects have been changed from the nominative to the objective 
case, governed by the preposition by, which expresses agency. 

22. See p. 143, § 146. The verbs destroy, deceive are transitive 
and their participles destroyed, deceived are passive. The verbs fall, 
rise are intransitive and their participles fallen, risen are active. The 
difference between has fallen, has risen and is fallen, is risen is stated 
in § 146. 

23. See p. 148, § 155, last paragraph. 

is, vb. intrs. of incompl. predn. — act. indie, pres. sing. 3rd, — agreeing 
with it. 

to see, vb. trans, act. infin. pres. indef. forming part of phrase to see 
beginners play, which is the real subject of sentence, it being the 
anticipatory substitute for this real subject. 

play, vb. intrs. act. inf. pres. indef. dependent on to see. For 
examples of verbs followed in modern English by the infin. without to, 
see p. 149, § 156 (iv). 

24. A. Uses of the Simple Infinitive. 

As the Simple Infinitive is equivalent in force to a Noun, it may be 
used for any purpose for which a noun is used, viz. : 

1. Subject to verb: To err {i.e. error) is human. 

2. Object to verb : He expects to succeed [i.e. success). 

3. Complement to verb : He seems to be a wise man. 

4. Object to certain prepositions (p. 149, § 156, last paragraph) : 
I want nothing except to live quietly {i.e. a quiet life). 

5. An exclamation : To think {i.e. the thought) of your lending 
him money ! 

B. Uses of the Gerundial Infinitive. 

The Gerundial Infinitive has the qualifying force of an Adjective or 
an Adverb. 

1. To qualify a verb, marking purpose, cause or result : 
He came to see {i.e. for the purpose of seeing) me, 



32 INFLEXION OF VERBS, Pp. 167—170. 

He wept to see (i.e. because of seeing) me. 

He worked hard only to fail (i.e. with the result of failing). 

2. To qualify a noun, marking purpose or simple futurity : 
A house to let. Your brother is to be pitied. 

They will meet in the world to come. 
Man never is, but always to be blest. 

3. To qualify an adjective, marking respect or purpose : 
Quick to hear and slow to speak. 

4. As an absolute phrase : 

To tell you the truth, I am tired of him. 
Society is a pyramid, so to speak. 
(From Nesfield's English Grammar, pp. 68 — 9.) 

25. The first six sentences contain errors in the use of the in" 
transitive verb lie, lay, lain and the transitive verb lay, laid, laid, 
i.e. to cause to lie. 

1. Say laid himself down or lain daivn. 

2. Say laid and broken. We might say broke instead of has broken, 
but the use of the pres. perf. admits of defence, for although the action 
is past its effects continue (p. 157, § 164, 4). 

3. Say underlay. 

4. Say laid himself down or lay down. 

5. Say let him lie. Byron's solecism (Childe Harold, iv. 180) 
demands indulgence on the ground of exigency of rhyme. 

6. Say the pistol lay : for would, which expresses determination, use 
should here: see p. 257, § 264 for the difference in meaning. 

7. Say loosen : the use of loose is also permissible but archaic : thus, 
' Whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven ' (Matt. 
xvi. 19): 'and to loose the seals thereof (Rev. v. 2) : 'I will loose his 
bonds' (Shakespeare, Com. of Err. v. i. 339). 

8. Say allow my brother and me : the verb allow is transitive : 
begun is the past participle of begin. 

9. Say written, past participle. 

10. Say sung, past participle. 

11. Say rang, sang for preterites. 

12. Say risen for past participle. 

26. See pp. 144— 5> § H9- 

Indicative, which indicates, i.e. simply predicates or affirms without 
further modal implication. Subjunctive, which is generally used in 
a clause subjoined or subordinate to another clause and preceded by one 
or other of certain conjunctions, especially if or though. Imperative, 
which expresses command or exhortation. Infinitive, which expresses 
the sense of the verb without restriction in regard to person or number. 

27. See note in text. 



INFLEXION OF VERBS, Pp. 167-170. 33 

28. See note in text. 

29. Nouns: inflexions of (1) Gender; the only living method of 
formation is to add -ess. Other surviving suffixes are -ster and -en. 
See p. 82, § 85 (1). Inflexions of (2) Number; -s or -es; archaic 
survivals, -en, -er, vowel modification. See p. 86, § 91. Inflexion of 
Case ; -'s. 

Verbs : write, write-st, writes, write-th, wrote, wrote-dst, writ-ing, 
writt-en. 

English has shown a tendency during the whole period of its exist- 
ence to simplify its inflexional system. The operation of this tendency 
to drop inflexions has been assisted by foreign influences, viz. the Danish 
invasions and the Norman conquest. 

The following words contain traces of lost inflexions : — Mine, thine, 
genit. sing, in n. — Their, our, your, genit. plur. in r and theirs, ours, 
yours, genit. sing, s added. — Him, whom, dat. sing. m\ them, seld-om, 
whil-om, dat. plur. — Wit -ena- gemot, genit. plur. -ena of nouns. — 
Then, zvhen, accus. of pronouns; why, how, the ('the more the better'), 
instrumental. — What, that, it, neuter suffix t. — Hind-most, superlative 
suffix -ma (see p. 116, § 115). — Loss of adverbial inflexion -e from 
certain monosyllabic adjectives which retain their adverbial use, e.g. 
Ride fast{e), Sleep sound(e). — Endings of verbal noun -ung and pres. 
participle -ud, reduced to form -ing.— Reduplication visible in did, 
hight, see p. 159, § 169 {b). — Yclept in its y shows trace of past part, 
inflexion -ge. 

case-ir 
; verfo 



30. See answer to Q. 29. The place of lost case-inflexions has 
been supplied by prepositions. The forms of the verbal noun and 
present participle have become -ing. 



31. Geese shows change of vowel of root gos, which formed its 
plur. originally gos-is. The addition of the suffix caused the change 
from gos- to ges- by Umlaut, p. 50 (3), and after the loss of the ending ges 
remained. The same explanation applies to man, mozise, foot, &c. p. 88, 
III. 3. Pence is the Old Eng. contracted form {pens) of pennies {penies). 
Brethren, p. 88, III. 2. Vixen, p. 82, § 86, second paragraph. Whom, 
dative sing., m a true dative suffix: cf. him. What contains neuter 
suffix -/ as in that, it: cf. Lat. id, quod. Worse, p. 115, § 115. Eldest, 
Umlaut caused by addition of comparative suffix: cf. Ger. alt, alter. 
Could, p. 174, § 182. Did, p. 160, § 169 (b). It is not certain that did 
is a reduplicated form. Some writers regard it as the past tense of a 
Weak verb with the suffix -de. 



W. E. G. K. 



34 AUXILIARY VERBS, Pp. 177—178. 

CHAPTER XVII. P. 177. 

1. See note in text. 

2. The Auxiliary verbs are enumerated pp. 171 — 2, § 174, and 
discussed in detail in §§ 175 — 180 and § 186. 

In (1) come is infinitive without to, originally and strictly the object 
of do: 'I did come' meant 'I performed an act of coming.' 

In (2) come is past participle. The construction is explained, p. 153, 
§ 160. 

For the construction in (3) and (4) see p. 175, § 184. 

3. (a) The earth hath bubbles, as the water has. 

He had a fever when he was in Spain. 

(b) If thou have power to raise him, bring him hither. 
Though he have no money he will never ask for help. 

(c) I have finished my work. 
They have gone abroad. 

4. For conjugation of can, shall, will, see p. 173, § 177. The only 
inflexion of ought is the 2nd pers. sing, oughtest. There are no in- 
flexions of must. 

The missing forms of can are supplied by be able', e.g. 'I shall not be 
able to go.' Shall and will supply each other's deficiencies. As ought, 
though a past tense in form, is used in a present sense, past obliga- 
tion is expressed by altering the tense of the dependent infinitive: 
' You ought to have said so.' The place of the missing infinitive is 
supplied by a circumlocution: e.g. 'He was known to be morally bound'' 
for 'to ought.' For the forms lacking in must, we use have to, be 
obliged to: e.g. ' They will have to stop: I shall be obliged to go.' 

5. Must, pres. indie 3rd sing., the modern form of mos-te which is 
the weak past tense of mot, itself a strong past in form used as a present. 
Mot survives in such archaic phrases as 'So mote it be,' i.e. 'So be it' : 
'So mote I die,' i.e. 'So may I die.' When Byron writes 'Whate'er this 
grief mote be,' using mote for might, he misunderstands the word. 
Our must has to do the work of both Ger. muss {mot) and ?nuss-te 
(mosle). 

Need, pres. indie. 3rd sing. This should be needs so far as its 
etymology is concerned (see p. 175, § 185), for need was never a past 
tense as were can, ?nay, will, shall, the analogy of which it has wrongly 
followed, with some indecision however, for we say 'He needs this,' 
' He needs to be corrected.' 

Dare, p. 175, § 183. Methinks, p. 139, § 143. 

/ wis may have been taken for a verb owing to confusion with / 
wist, past tense of / wot. See note in text. 



AUXILIARY VERBS, Pp. 177—178. 35 

Do (see p. 176, § 186, first paragraph) meaning 'be worth, avail' 
(A.S. diig-an, cf. Ger. taugen), is not connected with do, 'make' (A.S. 
do-n, cf. Ger. thim), but has assumed its forms, so that we say ' It did very 
well before,' 'It has always done hitherto.' By some writers however 
the existence of a modern verb do from dug-ait is denied on the ground 
that dug- would have become dow, not do. They explain 'This will 
never do' as equivalent to 'This will never work.' From diiga,n, 'to 
avail,' we get the adj. doughty. For ?note see above under must. 

6. For How do you do ? see note in text. 

I do you to wit : here / do means / cause, I make, followed by an 
object and an infin. Cf. ''Do him come,' i.e. Cause him to come 
(Paston Letters). See p. 177, § 187. 

Worth, p. 177, § 187. Subj. sing. 3rd pers. used only in this phrase. 
Cf. Ger. werd-en, to become. 

Seeing is believing, p. 154, § 162, 4. Ears to hear, p. 154, § 162, 2. 

7. By means of the auxiliaries shall and will. The uses of these 
verbs are stated in tabular form, p. 256, § 263: see 1. Futurity. 
3. Determination (i.e. intention). 5. Compulsion. 

8. Mood, Tense, p. 141, § 144; Auxiliary Verb, p. 286. 
See p. 147, § 154. 

For the meaning of 'Perfect' as applied to Tense, see p. 157, § 164, 4. 
Uses of do, p. 176, § 186, 2. 



CHAPTER XVIII. P. 183. 

1. See note in text. 

2. Really (or candidly) I want the money very soon (or almost 
immediately) and if you will let me have it now, without asking why 
it is required or how I am going to spend it, I shall feel exceedingly 
obliged. 

3. In the last place, in a pleasant way, on one occasion, now and 
then, in that place. 

4. Right is here an adverb: see p. 182, § 193, I (b) : against the 
strea?n is an adverbial phrase describing whither they pulled. It is 
usual to say in such cases that the adverb modifies the adverbial phrase 
introduced by the preposition. Some authorities prefer to say that the 
adverb modifies the preposition. If we adhere strictly to our definition 
of an adverb (p. 179, § 188) we shall adopt the former alternative. 
If we refrain from closely pressing the terms of the definition we may 
adopt the latter. 

5. A phrase formed by a preposition and noun is adjectival or 

3—2 



36 ADVERBS, Pp. 183—185. 

adverbial (see p. 186, § 196). The phrase within-my-recollection is 
adjectival, signifying 'retained-in-memory.' In the preceding answer it 
has been stated that by some authorities the adverb is described as 
qualifying the preposition. 

6. See p. 181, § 190. Holily, wholly, truly, sideways, sidelong, 
aboard, only, once, needs, northerly, herewith, hereby, hereafter, daily, 
otherwise, thrice. 

7. Time, weekly, presently; Place, hence, aloft; Degree, enough, 
hardly; Manner, weakly, anyhow, Certainty, possibly, certainly. 

8. In 'the above remarks' above is an adjective limiting remarks'. 
in 'we noticed above" 1 it is an adverb qualifying noticed', in '•above all' 
it is a preposition governing all, an adjective used as a noun. 

9. See the answer to Q. 4 above, respecting the qualification of 
Prepositions by Adverbs. Some writers hold that Adverbs in like 
manner qualify Conjunctions ; e.g. ' I believe it simply because you said 
so' : ' You have been growing richer ever since I knew you.' It may be 
argued On the Other hand that the adverb qualifies not the conjunction 
but the clause which the conjunction introduces. When an Adverb 
seemingly qualifies a Noun (which it does very rarely) there is an 
attribute suggested by the noun which explains the use : e.g. ' Even foxes 
are outwitted and caught,' i.e. Creatures even so cunning as foxes are 
outwitted and caught: ' Even Robespierre professed conscientious 
scruples,' i.e. A man even so infamous as Robespierre professed con- 
scientious scruples. See note in text. 

In (a) and (b) alone would be taken to mean 'without assistance': 
it is therefore an adverb qualifying succeeded, describing the circum- 
stances under which he succeeded. In (c) he alone would be taken to 
mean 'only he' (i.e. 'he and nobody else'); alone is therefore an adjec- 
tive limiting he. Almost is an adverb in all its uses : in (a) and (c) it 
qualifies succeeded, signifying that his success was not quite complete: 
in (b) it qualifies the adverb alone, signifying that he succeeded not 
entirely without assistance. 

10. Adverbs formed (r) from nouns: see p. 182, § 193, 3: add 
a-bed, a-foot, besides, per-haps, to-day, the nouns being preceded by 
disguised prepositions. 

(2) From pronouns: see p. 182, § 193, 4. 

(3) See p. 182, § 193, 1 : add kind-ly, grand-ly, nice-ly. 

(4) Compound forms: see p. 182, § 193, 5 : add maybe, some- 
where, anyhow. 

11. Shyly, far, slily, fast, kindly (the suffix -ly forms from kind 
both an adjective kindly and an adverb kindly: from the former we 
do not, probably for euphonic reasons, make an adverb kindlily, but say 
'in a kindly manner' : it is true that we have the words holily, lowlily, 



ADVERBS, Pp. 183—185. 



37 



but we seldom use them, preferring to say 'with holiness,' 'in a lowly- 
fashion'), gaily. 

Betimes, prefix preposition by. -s genitive suffix. Whilom, p. 182, 
§ 193, 3 (b): zvhile, noun, 'time.' Ashore, prefix a- form of preposition 
on, shore, noun. Piecemeal, see note in text. 

12. See note in text. 



CHAPTER XIX. P. 189. 

1. For Definition of {a) see. p. 118, § 119 ; of (b) p. 186, § 195. 
'Life or death, — that is the question': or more exactly, 'Whether I 

should choose life or death, — that is the question,' the subordinate clause 
being a Noun-clause (i.e. equivalent to a noun) for which that is a 
substitute. 

On the position of with see p. 187, § 197, last paragraph. 

2. On, fundamental meaning, superposition: 'on the earth,' place; 
l on the sea,' proximity of place ; 'on medicine, 'reference; 'on Saturday,' 
time; 'on the parched earth,' motion to a place; 'on the enemy,' 
opposition or direction; 'on receiving,' result; 'on account of,' cause. 

3. For, fundamental meaning, 'in front of.' 

1. This was meant for a joke, i.e. instead of; substitution. 

2. He is tall for his age, i.e. in reference to. 

3. I sold it for sixpence, i.e. in return for; exchange. 

4. For all that he was convicted, i.e. in spite of. 

5. I am starting for Paris; direction in place. 

6. Try it for a month; direction in time. 

7. They fought for the king; purpose. 

8. He was executed for treason; cause. 

Of (originally the same as off) fundamental meaning, 'proceeding 
from.' 

1. Within a mile of town; separation. 

2. He is clear of debt; exemption. 

3. She died of want; cause. 

4. He talked of his prospects; reference. 

5. This is a brute of a. dog; apposition. 

6. Half of the town was destroyed; partitive. 

7. He is a man 0/" courage; quality. 

8. This is the home of his ancestors; possession. 

9. The crown was made of gold; material. 

4. Of, from, out from, into, about, out of, upon, upon, in depend- 
ence on, with a view to, against, on. 

5. For gravy, (propelled) by steam, for war, from land, at sea., for 
Convalescents, off the grounder play, of life, on wheels. 

6. See note in text. 



38 PREPOSITIONS, Pp. 189— 191. 

7. See note in text. 

8. Upon, of by, without. For the uses of upon see Q. 2 above; 
on and tipon are practically identical in their uses. 

For of see Q. 3, and for by p. 188, § 198. 
Without, fundamental meaning, 'outside of.' 

1. They drew her without (beyond) the ranges. 

2. She is without help. 

9. (a) not later than, (b) towards, (V) towards, {d) on account of, 
(e) in spite of, (/) were carrying arms : when the word of command 
was given they stood ready to manoeuvre. 

10. Outstay, outrun, overthrow, overtake, overturn, upset, undergo, 
withhold, withstand. E.g. He withheld his assent, i.e. he kept it 
back, he refrained from giving it : He held zvith Plato, i.e. agreed 
with Plato. 

11. In (a) alt but perfect means 'very nearly perfect': in (b) any- 
thing but perfect means 'very far from being perfect.' 

In (c) the meaning is 'I can only feel sorry,' i.e. no other emotion is 
possible for me in the circumstances. See note in text. 

CHAPTER XX. P. 198. 

1. See p. 197, § 210. 

Either the witness is perjured or the prisoner is guilty. Every 
blood-vessel is either a vein or an artery. 

Though you argue with him all day, yet you will never change his 
opinion. 

He is both idle and extravagant. Both Liberals and Conservatives 
approved of the appointment. 

The book is not of such (pronom. demonst. adj.) a kind that (conj.) 
I can recommend it. 

The waves were such (pronom. demonstr. adj.) as (relat. pron., 
see p. 129, § 131) I had never seen before. 

The waves were so (adv.) high, that (conj.) they dashed over the 
pier. 

He is not so wise as (advbl. conj.) he looks. (See p. 272, § 270.) 

2. What. 

Interrog. Pron. What will you do? 

Inter. Pron. used as Adj. What money have you? 

Relat. Pron. This is what he stole. 

Relat. Pron. used as Adj. Use what money you have. 

Indef Pron. I'll tell you what {i.e. something). 

He knows what's what (colloquial : what's i.e. what is, relat., what, 
indef., anything: He knows what anything is, he is sure of his 
ground). 



CONJUNCTIONS, P. 198. 39 

Adverb (rare). For what is a man advantaged if he gain the whole 
world and lose himself? (Luke ix. 25). Here what means how. 

What with one thing and what with another he is almost distracted. 
Here what zvith means 'partly in consequence of.' 

Conj. (rare). Not a thing did I say but tuhat you contradicted it. 
Here ruhat stands for that. 

Since. 

Prep. You know since Pentecost the sum is due. 

Adv. They have opposed each other ever since. 

Conj. I have been in such a pickle since I saw you last. I believe 
it since you say so. 

Well. 

Verb. The waters welled forth (i.e. flowed out). 

Noun. The well is four hundred feet deep. 
Adv. He did his work well. 

3. See p. 196, § 206. 

When the accident happened 'is still uncertain (Noun clause). 

The hour when the accident happened is still uncertain (Adjective 
clause). 

No one was on the spot when the accident happened (Adverbial 
clause). 

CHAPTER XXI. P. 205. 

1. Dis-contented, im-proper, in-visible, un-pleasant, dis-ingenuous, 
un-natural. 

2. See p. 289. 

Believing, A.S. gelyfan (cf. Ger. glauben) ; the mod. prefix be- is 
substituted for older ge-. The suffix -ing represents the A.S. -ung by 
which nouns were formed from verbs : it is now also the inflexion of the 
present participle. Darling from dear, with double dimin. suffix -/, 
-ing. Forlorn from for-, intensive prefix (quite distinct from fore), and 
lose (A.S. forleosan, pp. forloren) : cf. Ger. verloren. Islet, dim. in -et 
of isle for which see Key, p. 13. Nethermost: -most double superlative 
ending (p. 116, Hindmost) added to nether in which -ther is originally 
a compar. suffix. Requital, from re-, Fr. or Lat. prefix meaning 'back,' 
'again,' quit, free (from same source as quiet, at rest, so, free), -«/noun 
suffix of Lat. origin (-alis, -alem, -alia). Spinster, p. 82, § 86. Uncouth, 
p. 174, § 182, tin-, Eng. negat. prefix. 

3. There is no English word arated, though we might have formed 
one from Lat. aratus to signify ' made of bronze or brass.' The word 
derated is formed from Lat. aer, air, by adding suffix -ate (Lat. pp. 
-atus), and means exposed to free atmospheric action. The Aerated 



4o COMPOUNDS, DERIVATIVES, Pp. 205—208. 

Bread Company's bread is baked from dough into which carbonic-acid 
gas is forced instead of its being set free by fermentation of yeast. 

4. Trust, confidence; mis-trust, lack of confidence; mistrust-ful, 
having lack of confidence ; i?iistrustful-ly, in a manner showing that one 
has lack of confidence. 

Whole (cognate with hale), sound, healthy; whole-some, having the 
quality of soundness in a considerable degree, or favourable to health ; 
un-wholesome, unfavourable to health ; unwholesome-ness, the state or 
character of being unfavourable to health. 

5. Forbear, Eng. , -ance, Fr. from Lat. Duke, Fr. from I.at., -dom, 
Eng. Somna?nbul-, Fr. from Lat., -ist, Gk. Un-, 'Eng., just, Fr. from 
Lat. Social, Lat., -ism, Gk. Master, Fr. from Lat., -ship, Eng. 

6. Alderman, A.S. ealdorman, i.e. elder man. In Anglo-Saxon 
times the chief magistrate of a county or group of counties : in modern 
times a magistrate of a city or borough. Defeat, O.Fr. defait, pp. of 
defaire, from Lat. dis-, apart, facere, to make. Drake, p. 84, § 88. 
Idiot, ultimately from Gk. IdiuTTjs, a private person, so, an inexperienced 
person: from Gk. tdios, own. Meanings: (1) a private person, (2) an 
ignorant person, (3) a fool, (4) one destitute of ordinary mental power. 
Invalid, Fr. from Lat. in-, negat., validus, strong: as adj., invalid, 
weak ; as noun, invalid, a weak person. Involve, Fr. from Lat. in, 
prep., in, volvere, to roll. Meanings: (1) to wrap up, infold, (2) entangle. 
Kaleidoscope, Fr. from irregularly formed Gk. kcl\6s, beautiful; eldos, 
form ; aKowecv, to view. Middle, A.S. middel, from midd with forma- 
tive suffix -el. Megrim, Fr. migraine, from Gk. ijfwcpavia, a pain 
affecting one side of the head, from <t/au-, hemi-, half; Kpaviov, skull. 
Meanings: (1) a form of headache, (2) low spirits. Monk, Lat. 
monachus, from Gk. ixovaxbs, solitary (from /xdvos, alone). Orchard, 
i.e. wort-yard, or herb-garden; now fruit plantation. Pilgrim, O.Fr. 
pelegrin, only found as pelerin (but Ital. pellegrino, peregrino), from 
Lat. peregrinus, a foreigner; ultimately from per, through; ager, field. 
Scholar, from school (spelt without h in earlier times, h being inserted 
in conformity with Lat. scholaris) : school, from Lat. schola, Gk. 0-%o\i7, 
(1) leisure, (2) learned discussion occupying leisure, (3) the place where 
such discussion was carried on. Uticouth, p. 174, § 182. Meanings: 
(1) not known, (2) strange, (3) awkward. 

7. Latin (directly or through French), the native element, Greek : 
see p. 15. 

Ally, Fr. from Lat. al- {ad), to, ligare, to bind. Agony, Gk. dyiovia, 
a contest, through Fr. (1) a struggle, (2) the death-struggle, (3) intense 
pain. Dyspeptic, Fr. from Gk. 8va-, hard ; ireTrrbs, verbal adj. of 
TreirreLv, to cook, digest. Girl, from Low Ger. gb'r, a child, with dimin. 
suffix -/. Formerly a child of either sex, though more frequently 
a female : also, in special sense, a maid-servant. The word girl has 



COMPOUNDS, DERIVATIVES, Pp. 205—208. 41 

no etymological connexion with garrulous. Journal, Fr. from Lat. 
diurnalis, from dies, day: strictly an adj., 'daily,' of which we have 
a doublet direct from Lat. diurnal. Meanings: (i) daily; so Shake- 
speare, M.for M. IV. iii. 92, 'Ere twice the sun hath made his journal 
greeting,' (2) a diary, (3) a newspaper, whether published daily or not. 
Lord, a master, lit. loaf- ward, i.e. loaf-keeper: A.S. hldford. Person, 
Fr. personne, from Lat. persona, an actor's mask, so, a character in 
a play ; so, a person ; from Lat. personare, to sound through : the actor's 
voice sounded through the mask. Parson is a doublet, meaning orig. 
a person of position, e.g. choir-master or curate. Ornithologist, from 
Fr. made from Gk. 8pvis (opvid-), a bird, \iyeiv, to speak, and suffix -isi 
(Gk. -tarris), marking agency. Poison (doublet potion), Fr. from Lat. 
potionem, ace. of potio, a draught. Rival, Fr. from Lat. rivalis, one 
who uses the same brook (Lat. rivus) as another, so, near neighbour ; 
hence, competitor, antagonist. Sherry (older form sherris), from 
Spanish town Xeres near Cadiz. The name Xeres is a corruption 
of Ccesaris, genit. of Ccesar, after whom the town was called. Silly, 
A.S. sdelig, timely (from sM, time, season, happiness). Meanings: 
(1) blessed, (2) innocent, (3) helpless, (4) foolish. Somersault, Fr. 
soudresault, ultimately from Lat. supra, over, saltum, ace. of saltus, 
a leap. Telegraph, of modern formation from Gk. rrjXe, afar, ypd<peiv, 
to write. Villain, Fr. from Low Lat. villanus, a farm servant (from 
Lat. villa, a farm-house). Meanings: (1) a feudal serf, (2) a peasant, 
(3) a scoundrel. Volume, Fr. from Lat. voliwien, a scroll, so, 
a book on a parchment roll (from pp. of volvere, to roll). Meanings : 
(1) a rolled written document, (2) a book, (3) a rounded mass, e.g. 
volumes of smoke. 

8. Caitiff, Fr. from Lat. captivus : captive is a doublet. Cardinal, 
from Lat. cardinalis, principal, used of something on which other 
matters depend, or, as we say, hinge (Lat. cardo, cardin-, a hinge) ; 
e.g. cardinal doctrines, cardinal points. As a noun cardinal denotes 
a member of the Sacred College in the Roman Catholic church : the 
cardinals rank next to the pope and advise him in his administration. 
Frenzy, Fr. ultimately from Gk. <ppi)v, <ppev-, heart, senses : Late Gk. 
(pp£vri<TLS, inflammation of the brain. Seraph, a sing, formed from 
Hebrew serdphi77i, exalted ones. Nightingale, A.S. nightegale (the n 
being inserted later), from A.S. nihte, of night, gale, a singer. With 
gale compare our yell. Welkin, sky, clouds, from A.S. wolcnu, clouds, 
plur. Cf. Ger. wolke, a cloud. 

9. Gazette, O.Fr. gazette, an abstract of news, issued at Venice, 
from Ital. gazelta, a gazette: derived either (1) from Ital. gazzetta, 
a magpie, hence tittle-tattle, or (2) from gazzetta, a small coin, less 
than a farthing, which may have been paid for the privilege of reading 
the news. Tinsel, O.Fr. estincelle, a spark : cognate with scintillation 



42 COMPOUNDS, DERIVATIVES, Pp. 205—208. 

(Lat. scintilla, a spark). Blame, doublet of blaspheme : O.Fr. blasmer, 
ultimately from Gk. ^Xaacprjfieiv. Loyal, Fr. loyal, from Lat. legalis: 
legal is a doublet. Archbishop, A.S. arcebisceop: through Lat. from 
Gk. apxt-, chief, eiriaKoiros, bishop. Sheriff, for shire-reeve, A.S. scir- 
gerefa, shire officer. 

10. Following the etymology we should write sui-cide (Lat. sui, 
of himself, -cidium, a slaying, from ccedere, to slay) ; loco-motive 
(ultimately Lat. locus, moved) ; via-duct (Lat. via ducta, a road conducted 
across something) ; apo-stle (ultimately Gk. airb, off, crtWeiv, to send) ; 
epi-gram (ultimately Gk. eiri, upon, ypd<peiv, to write) ; de-dine (Lat. de, 
down, conjectural clinare, to lean) ; sus-pect is nearer to a division 
according to etymology than susp-ect (ultimately Lat. su- for sus-, subs-, 
under, specere, to look); kin-dred or kind-red, as the d is excrescent, 
belonging neither to root kin nor to suffix -red (as in hat-red, signifying 
stPte or condition) ; lanc-et (et dimin. suffix) ; morn-ing {-ing A.S. sub- 
stantival suffix -ung) ; hill-ock {-ock dimin. suffix) ; univers-ity (ultimately 
Lat. uni-, for unus, one, versus, pp. of vertere, to turn : so, a combina- 
tion into one whole) ; semin-ary (Lat. semuia?-ium ; semin-, stem of 
semen, seed, -aritun, neut. adjectival suffix); catastrophe (ultimately 
Gk. /caret, down, arpecpeiv, to turn). 

11. With-, against, back, Eng., withstand ; contra-, against, Lat. 
contra-diet, counter-act ; dia-, through, Gk. afoz-meter ; sub-, under, 
Lat. stib-]ect, sup-pose, .^-division ; per-, through, Lat. per-form, 
per-haps; sym-, with, Gk. sympathy; arch-, chief, Gk. arch-deacon; 
un-, Eng. not, un-just, or reversal, un-wind; ab-, from, Lat. ab- 
normal. 

12. Ex-, out, from; mis-, badly; retro-, backwards; ante-, before; 
anti-, against; out-, beyond; be-, intensive, very much; ac- (ad-), to; 
ig- (in-), not; im- (in-), not. 

13. In gold-en, -en is adjectival, and means possessing a quality; 
in sweet-en it is causative, forming a transitive verb ; in vix-en it marks 
the feminine; in childr-en, the plural; in maid-en it is a diminutive 
suffix. 

14. Black-/jy£, possessing the quality in a slight degree ; yeoman-rj/, 
collective; spinster, feminine gender; maltster, agency (p. 82, § 86); 
youngster, slight depreciation or contempt; doci-or, agency; dax-ling, 
diminutive; man-hood, god-head, ixee-dom, state or quality; lanc-^, 
ring-let, diminutive. 

15. Health, set, seat, web, depth, dip, lay, bathe, beloved. 

16. See p. 199, § 212. Witticism, a hybrid, from Eng. witty with 
Gk. suffixes -ic and -ism, probably due to mistaken analogy of criticism. 
Oddity, a hybrid, from Scandinavian odd with Romance suffix -ity 
(Fr. -te, Lat. -tas, -tatem). Wondrous, not a hybrid from Eng. wonder 



COMPOUNDS, DERIVATIVES, Pp. 205—208. 43 

with Lat. suffix -osus or -us, but a corruption of O.Eng. wonders, an 
adverb from wonder with suffix -s, originally genitival, p. 182, § 193, 3 (a). 
Honeyed, past participial suffix attached to a noun : see p. 202, remarks 
on wretch-ed. Honey is of Eng. origin. 

17. Unhappy, impossible, irrational, discontented, invalid, ignoble, 
nonsense. 

For diminutive forms see p. 201, § 216, and for bicycle see p. 203, 
Hybrids. 

18. English : ownership, wedlock, man/j, truth, goodtiess, spinster. 
Latin: actor, justzV^, verb<?.sr, animalcule, fugitive, vaccinate. 
Greek: nihilist, obelisk, theism, \ogic, fertile, idiot. 

French : deputy, priests, cigarette, grandeur, picturesque, magnify. 

19. For (a) see p. 201, § 216; for (b) see p. 202, last line; for (c) 
note following Q. 19, p. 207. 

For (r) see p. 202, Agent ; for (2) see p. 202, Act, state, quality. 

20. In around the prefix a is a corruption of on and denotes 
position. Numerous, -ous, adjectival suffix, denotes possession of quality 
in high degree. Governesses, -ess, feminine, -es plural inflexion. Recite, 
re-, again, denotes repetition. English, adjectival, denotes possession 
of quality. 

21. Because the first element in the compound modifies the mean- 
ing of the second. See p. 200, § 213. Additional examples: horse-race, 
race-horse ; oil-lamp, lamp-oil ; boot-jack, jack -boot ; house-boat, boat- 
house ; workhouse, house- work. 

22. Forlorn, intensive ; misuse, badly ; attract, from ; fospeak, 
transitive; livelihood, condition; white//, causative; swinish, possess- 
ing a quality, in a depreciatory sense ; satch*?/, diminutive. 

23. -fy, causative (Fr. -fier, Lat. -ficare from facio) ; -ness, state or 
quality, Eng. ; -ion, state or quality, Fr. from Lat. ; -ible, adapted for, 
given to (Fr. -ble from Lat. -abilis, -ibilis, -ubilis, as in cap-able, ed-ible, 
sol-uble) ; -en, diminutive, e.g. n\zxden ; feminine, vixen ; plural, oxen ; 
possessing a quality, woodra; causative, darken; passive sense, 
burd<?;z, that which is borne; beaten, past participle; all Eng.; -isk, 
diminutive, asterisk, Gk.; -ly, adverbial, Eng.; -tude, quality, Lat. 

24. Fore-, before, y^fathers ; in- (1) into,'mject, (2) not, mfirm; 
meta-, change, metamorphose; -en (see preceding answer); -le (1) 
diminutive, bund/<?, cast/V, (2) possessing a quality, gentle-, -er(i) agent, 
baker, (2) old plural, child-<rr-en, (3) comparative, stronger, (4) fre- 
quentative, batter (from beat). 

Umpire, formerly numpire, O. Fr. nompair, odd, from Lat. non, 
not, par, equal : so, the odd (or third) man who decides between two 
others. The initial n in a numpire has been attached to the indef. 
article in an umpire. A converse process is seen in the words a newt, 



44 COMPOUNDS, DERIVATIVES, Pp. 205—208. 

for an ewt (the correct form of which is preserved in eft), in a nickname, 
for an ekename {eke meaning ' also ' : cf. Ger. auch), and in the archaic 
phrase for the nonce {i.e. for then once, for that time only). Icicle, A.S. 
is-gicel, where gicel is a dimin. form meaning 'a small piece of ice': 
thus icicle contains the meaning 'ice' in each part. Jovial describes 
the happy temperament supposed by astrologers to characterise those 
born under the influence of the planet Jupiter. Tawdry for St Awdry, 
originally used in the phrase tavjdry lace, i.e. lace bought at St Awdry's 
fair held on St Awdry's day, Oct. 17. Awdry is a popular form of 
Etheldrida. Sirloin, O.Fr. surlonge, from Fr. sur, above, longe, loin. 
The theory that the joint received its name because it was knighted by 
James I. as 'Sir Loin' is a humorous invention. Squirrel, ultimately 
from Gk. aidovpos, a squirrel (from cvad, shadow, ovpd, tail, i.e. shadow- 
tail, from his bushy tail). Trivial, from Lat. tri-, three, via way; 
trivialis, belonging to three cross-roads, so, common-place. Utopian, 
from Sir Thomas More's romance Utopia (published 15 16), which 
describes an imaginary island, situated nozuhere: from Gk. ov, not, 
Toiros, place. Solecism, see p. 246, footnote. Boycott, from Capt. 
Boycott, a farmer in Connemara and agent of Lord Erne, an Irish 
landlord, the first prominent victim of the system of intimidation to 
prevent freedom in dealing (1880) : used as noun and verb. 

25. Enlarge, justify, strengthen, widen, bedim, cleanse, endear. 

26. (1) Qo\d-en, talent-^, hand-some, wood-^/, fruity/, baby-ish, 
pictur-^Wt', infant- He, infant-ine, verb-ose. 

(2) free-do fn, boli-ness, tr\x-th, height, grand-eur, brave- ry, 
cruel-/v, duYl-ard. 

(3) from nouns: spark-&, knee-/, typi^, ga.lva.n- ize, critic- 
ize: from adjectives: dark-en, linger (long). 

(4) where, whither, whence, when, why, how (from who: 
p. 182, § 193, 4). 

27. Dike (of which ditch is a weakened form : dig comes from 
A.S. dician, to make a die or dike) ; wind, i.e. turn about, twist, akin to 
wend, went; give; moon; house (Icelandic htisbondi, the master of 
a house, from hiis, house, buandi, dwelling in); long; weave (formerly 
oof from A.S. owef i.e. 0, for on, wef from the verb to weave: recog- 
nising its connexion with weave but not recognising the fact that oof 
already contained an element from weave, people put a w before oof) ; 
sow ; bear ; lose ; fox. 

28. Kine, double plur., A.S. cii, ' cow,' made its plur. cy, to which 
the plur. inflexion -en was afterwards added. 

Riches, p. 89, § 93 (2). Rather, p. ir6, first paragraph. Naught, 
p. 130, first paragraph. 

Hillock, diminutive form of Eng. origin. 



COMPOUNDS, DERIVATIVES, Pp. 205—208. 45 

Surname, from Fr. sur (Lat. super), name of Eng. origin: thus 
a hybrid. 

29. £m/>ress from Fr. imperatrice (Lat. imperatrice??i), -ice be- 
coming -<?j\r by analogy with other fern, forms : there has also been 
contraction of the stem. Alms, p. 89, § 93 (2). Nearer, p. 115, § 115. 
None from A.S. w^, not, ««, one: by loss of final n none becomes no, 
as in nothing, nobody. Atheism, coined from Gk. de-6s, a god, by 
adding suffix -ism (-Hr/xos) and prefix a, negative. Superficies, direct 
from Lat. [super, above, fades, face) ; the same word entering through 
Fr. appears as surface. 

30. Sisterly, famous, quarrelsome, slavish, silvery, silvern (poetic, 
e.g. 'Speech is silvern, silence is golden'). 

31. Older, elder, p. 115, last paragraph; Latest, last, Key, 
p. 24, Q. 3. Masterly, with the skill of a master; e.g. He played in 
a masterly way: masterful, domineering, e.g. His masterful spirit would 
brook no opposition. Virtuous, morally good ; virtual, existing in effect 
but not actually : e.g. Women are virtually represented in parliament 
though they have no votes. Stationery, writing materials ; stationary, 
at rest, fixed. Idiotic, characteristic of an idiot, absurd ; idiomatic, pertain- 
ing to a form of expression which is peculiar to any language. Idol, an 
image or object of mistaken worship; idyll (or idyl), a rural or pastoral 
poem, e.o. the idyls of Theocritus, Goldsmith's Deserted Village : 
applied also to longer descriptive pieces, as Tennyson's Idylls of the 
King. Politic, in keeping with good policy, expedient; political, per- 
taining to civil government. Confident, adj., fully assured ; confidant, 
noun, one to whom secrets are entrusted. Expedient, proper under 
the circumstances, advisable; expeditious, speedy. Credible, believable; 
creditable, reputable. 

32. Cambric, from Cambray, a town in the department of Nord, 
France (Flemish Kameryk), where this fine linen was first made. 
Dandelion, Fr. dent de lion, lion's tooth; so called from the jagged 
leaves. Drawing-room, for withdrawing-roo?n, a room to which people 
retire: the unabbreviated form occurs in Evelyn's Diary (1661). 
Laconic, i.e. Lacedaemonian or Spartan, means expressing much in few 
words after the manner of the ancient Laconians. Nostril, p. 51 (4). 
Posthumous (see Key, p. 13). Tantalize, from Tantalus, a son of 
Zeus, who, for revealing the secrets of the gods, was placed in water 
up to his chin: when he stooped to drink the water receded from his 
lips. Profusely: Lat. profit sus, liberal, pp. of profitndere, to pour forth, 
gives us profuse from which the adv. is formed by adding Eng. suffix -ly. 
Bicycle, from Lat. bi-, two, Gk. k6k\os, wheel : a hybrid. Surgeon, 
formerly chirurgeon, cf. Fr. chirurgien : one who works with the hands 
(Gk. x^/5> hand, ^pyetv, to work). 



46 COMPOUNDS, DERIVATIVES, Pp. 205—208. 

33. The suffixes -ness and -ship denote state or quality : -ock and 
-ing are diminutives, and -ard augmentative. 

For the modification of the vowel of the stem [cat, thumb, fox) see 
p. 50, last paragraph, Umlaut. 

34. The suffix -ish denotes the possession of a quality in a low 

degree, blackish ; hence sometimes it suggests disparagement, babyish : 
-me, possession of a quality, divine-, -en, see Key, p. 42, Q. 13 : -y 
(Lat.), state or quality, infamy, glory: -y (Gk.), with same idea, 
sympathy: -y, possession of a quality, mighty: -al, possession of a 
quality, comical'. -?V(Gk.), pertaining to, periodic; -ic (Lat.), possession 
of a quality, rustic: -ous, possession of a quality in a high degree, 
famous: -less, absence of a quality, homeless: -some, possession of a 
quality, wholesome. 

35. Kine, see Key, p. 44, Q. 28. Shepherdess, a hybrid: the 
elements shep {sheep) and herd (keeper of a flock) are Eng. ; the suffix 
-ess is Fr. -esse, Late Lat. -issa. Spinster, p. 82, § 86, first paragraph. 
Unjust, a hybrid : just, Fr. juste, Lat. justmn, accus. of Justus, prefix 
un-, Eng. Mineralogy, a hybrid : mineral, Fr. logy, Gk. ; Fr. 
mineral from Fr. miner, to excavate, from Low Lat. minare, to lead, 
hence to follow up a lode or vein of ore : 7?iinare acquired this sense 
from the meaning to drive by threats, from Lat. minari, to threaten. 
In passing from Lat. mince, threats, to Eng. mine in zozX-mine we have 
travelled a long way. The suffix -Xoyia is from XeyeLv, to speak. 
Deodorize, a hybrid : the prefix de- is the Lat. prep, meaning from, away 
from; odor is Lat., the suffix -ize, Gk., spelt -ise as it reached us 
through Fr. -iser. Children, p. 88, III. 2. Sovereign, O.Fr. soverain, 
later souverain, from Low Lat. superamis, chief, from super, above: 
the g is intrusive, probably from confusion with reign, as in foreign (see 
Key, p. 13). Talkative, a hybrid : talk is Scandinavian, -ative, Fr. 
-atif fern, -ative, Lat. -ativus, in which the suffix -ivus is added to the 
past partic. stem in -at-. Laughable denotes what can be laughed at: 
see the remarks on reliable, p. 267, note to Q. 31, (2). 

36. Jew-ry, collective ; duck-ling, diminutive ; wit-ness, action (e.g. 
to bear witness : afterwards the doer of the act, one who bears witness); 
trump-el, diminutive (a small trump as trombone is a large trump)', 
a-board, on board (a- is a corruption of prep, on) ', Arch-duke, chief. 

37. y4/-mighty, Lat. omni-poterit, Gk. /<2«-theist. ///-starred, 
Lat. mal-eoutex\t, male-iaetox, mis-chance, Gk. a^y-pepsia. Thorough- 
fare, Lat. per-va.de, Gk. dia-meter. Withstand, Lat. resist, ^-struct, 
contra-diet, Gk. anti-pathy. Wood-m (interpreting the suffix strictly 
as denoting made of the material indicated by the noun), Lat. ligne-ous, 
Gk. adamant- ine. Biack-en, Lat. terri-fy, Gk. fertil-z'^. L,earn-ed 
(past part, used as adj.), Lat. desol-ate. 



COMPOUNDS, DERIVATIVES, Pp. 205—208. 47 

38. Compare unman with manly, manliness, manful, manfully, 
mannish', distrust with trustful, trusty, undress with dressy: untruth 
with truthful. For further illustration compare view, interview, 
review, indict, interdict, contradict', subtract, retract, detract, contract; 
proceed, precede, intercede, succeed, which show considerable differences 
in their meaning. Compare on the other hand false, falsely, falsehood, 
falsity, falseness; beg, beggar, beggary, which show an underlying 
stratum of uniform meaning, only the part of speech being changed. 
The statement in the text of the question is however much too sweeping. 
The prefixes in the following examples do not appreciably modify, far 
less reverse, the meaning of the words to which they are attached: 
a:-rise, ^-shamed, fe-smear, y^r-lorn, ww-loose, dissever. 

39. See Key, p. 8, Q. 11.. 

1. Importation from other languages. 

2. Formation of compounds: e.g. steam-tram, railway, motor-car, 
torpedo-catcher, Little- Englander, blackleg. 

3. Formation of derivatives : e.g. rationaliser, argon, appendicitis, 
bimetallism, jollifi cation, totalisator, cramnier. 

4. Adoption of proper names as common nouns or verbs : e.g. 
boycott, jingo, galvani-c, brougham, volt (from Volta), tnacadamize. 

5. Adoption of slang terms into literary English: e.g. mugwu??ip, 
gerrymander, boom, slump, slumming, boss. 

40. Hospital, hospitable, host, hostel, (h)ostler, hotel, (ho)spital 
(as in Spitalfields). 

Vision, advise, envy, evident, improvise, invidious, provide, prudent, 
review, revise, supervise, survey, visage, visible, visit, visual. 

Tenant, tenacious, tenement, tenet, tenor, tentative, tenure, retain, 
sustain, obtain, &c. 

Victor, convince, evict, evince, invincible, vanquish. 

Sequel, consecutive, consequent, ensue, execute, persecute, prose- 
cute, pursue, second, subsequent, sue, suit, suite. 



CHAPTER XXII. P. 226. 

1. See p. 210, and for the shortest sentence see p. 211, § 221 (3). 

The shortest sentence, 'Go,' admits of some forms of expansion, 
but not of all. Thus, the subject You may be expanded by a noun in 
apposition and the predicate go by an adverb, as in ' You, the traitor, go 
away': or You may be expanded by an adjective-clause and go by an 
adverbial clause, as in 'You, who are guilty of treason, go whence you 
will never return ' : or You may be expanded by a participle and go by 
an adverbial phrase or an absolute phrase, as in 'You, degraded and 



48 ANALYSIS AND PARSING, Pp. 226—229. 

condemned, go (1) with all speed (2) to a foreign land (adverbial phrases), 
your sentence having been pronounced' (absolute phrase). See p. 213, 
§ 223, and p. 215, § 226. 

2. To detail how the success... tenour of my life is the real subject, 
anticipated by the use of it as a temporary substitute. In analysing 
sentences of this type we may describe //as the Provisional Subject and 
the substantive clause or phrase for which it stands as the Real Subject, 
or we may describe // as the Subject and the substantive clause or 
phrase for which it stands as an Enlargement in apposition with it. 

3. Go is certainly a sentence, the ellipsis of the subject you being 
usual in imperative sentences. 

Hence stands for 'Go hence' or 'I tell you to go hence.' The 
essential elements of a sentence are a subject and a predicate. We 
may sometimes omit the subject, as we do in imperative sentences, 
leaving you to be understood when we say ' Go ' : and we may some- 
times omit the predicate, as we do in answering questions, leaving the 
verb to be supplied from the interrogative sentence; e.g. 'Who said 
so?' 'The captain,' i.e. The captain said so. But in 'Hence' we 
have neither subject nor predicate. All that remains of a sentence is an 
adverbial adjunct of the predicate. It would probably be more in 
keeping with our notion of a sentence to call 'Hence' an interjection 
than to call it an elliptical sentence. A knife scarcely deserves to be 
called a knife any longer when it has lost its handle, its blade, and all 
that remains is a rivet. When we say ' Hi ! ' in hailing a cabman we 
mean 'I want you,' or 'Come hither.' But 'Hi!' is an interjection, 
not a sentence. 

For Yes see p. 181, § 191. 

4. For subject and predicate see p. 210, and for copula, p. 177, 
note to Q. 1. 

The grammatical analysis is as follows : 

Subj. This 

Adjunct of Subj. that I see before me 

J Verb, of Incompl. Predn. is 

( Complement a dagger. 

The logical analysis is as follows : 
Subj. This that I see before me 

Copula is 
Pred. a dagger. 

5. This : converting the Interrogative to an equivalent Declaratory 
sentence, we get ' This is he.' — You. — Battle, see p. 218, 12. — He: 
'his horse being killed' is an absolute phrase, p. 215, Adverbial 
Adjuncts. 

6. See p. 210 and p. 212, § 222. 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING, Pp. 226—229. 49 

7. On the impersonal verb methinks see p. 139, § 143. The con- 
struction of the word in this passage is to be explained thus : 
Subj. [that] The billows spoke and told me of it 
Pred. thought, i.e. seemed 
Advl. adjunct of Pred. [to] me. 
Me in methought is in the dative case. 



Subject. 


Predicate. 


Object. 


chieftain 


drew 


sword 


the, warlike 


at once 


his, trusty 



Adjuncts 

9. The horse, which had a vicious temper, kicked the man because 
he was being clumsily groomed. 

10. See p. 213, § 224. 

{a) The Saxons invaded England during the latter part of the fifth 
century. 

{b) The Saxons invaded England when the fifth century was more 
than two-thirds spent. 

11. When the officer approached the thatched building, which was 
partly hidden from his view, a brisk fusillade was suddenly commenced 
from the upstairs windows. 

In this sentence the principal predicate was commenced has for its 
extensions (1) suddenly, (2) from the upstairs tvindows, (3) zuhen the 
officer ■.. from his view, and the third of these, the adverbial clause, con- 
tains an object, btdlding, which is enlarged (1) by an adjective thatched, 
(2) by an adjectival clause which was partly hidden from his view. 

12. See pp. 194—5- 

(1) Noun-clause, (2) Adjective-clause, (3) Adverbial. See p. 196, 
§ 206, where the reasons for so describing these clauses are stated. 

13. Subject and predicate, p. 210; object, p. 214, § 225; enlarge- 
ment, expansion, attributive adjunct, p. 212, § 223; adverbial adjunct, 
p. 214, § 226; complement, p. 211, § 221 (4); sentence, p. 210; cf. 
p. 193, last paragraph; clause and phrase, p. 213, § 224; principal and 
subordinate clauses, pp. 194 — 5 ; simple, compound, and complex sen- 
tences, p. 194. 

14. Noun-clauses : That you made a grave mistake is obvious. 
I see that you ?nade a grave mistake. 

Adjective-clauses: Those who do nothing generally take to shouting. 
We feel but little respect for those who do nothing. 

Adverbial clauses: When rogues fall out, honest men get their own. 
Go to a busy man, if you want anything done. 

15. If you would understand an author you must understand the 
age in which he lived. Principal clause, You must understand the -age ; 

W. E. G. K. 4 



50 ANALYSIS AND PARSING, Pp. 226—229. 

Adjectival clause limiting age, in which he lived-, Adverbial clause, 
qualifying must understand, if you would understand an author. 

He knows much who knows when he must hold his tongue. Principal 
clause, He knows much; Adjectival clause limiting he, zuho knows when 
he must hold his tongue; Noun clause, object of knows in Adjectival 
clause, when he ?nust hold his tongue. 

16. The thief, an old offender (Noun in apposition), avoided the 
policeman, who was on the other side of the street (Adjectival clause), a 
disturbance having arisen oiitside a public-house (Absolute phrase). 

17. {a) She sings worse than ever she sang well: than ever she sang 
well is an adverbial clause modifying the predicate sings. 

(b) Our proverb says that it is better to do well late than it is good 
to do well never. What does our proverb say ? that it is better. . .well 
never : this is therefore a noun clause, containing an adverbial clause, 
than it is good to do well never, modifying the predicate of the noun 
clause it is better. 

(c) Things happened precisely as you guessed that they would 
happen. What did you guess ? That they would happen : this is there- 
fore a noun clause, forming part of the adverbial clause as you guessed 
that they would happen by which the predicate happened is modified 
when we say in the principal clause Things happened. 

18. Fifty: adj.: Better fifty years of Europe than a cycle of 
Cathay. 

noun : They sat down in ranks, by hundreds and by fifties. 
Few : adj. : Few substances are found pure in nature. 

pron. : Many be called but few chosen. 
Kill : verb : The severe frost will kill the shrubs. 

noun: We were just in time for the kill, i.e. act of killing. 
(Hunting slang.) 

Cavalry : noun : The cavalry pursued the enemy. 

adj. : The enemy were routed by a fierce cavalry charge. 
Their: pronom. possess, adj. : They glory in their wealth. 

pers. pron. (obsolete) : Be not afraid of their terror, i.e. the terror 
of them. 

Those : pron. : Take these and leave me those. 

pronom. demons, adj. : Take away those things. 
Sheer: adj.: Sheer stupidity : a sheer descent. 

adv. : Sheer he cleft the bow asunder. 

verb : Sheer off and part company. 
Pell-mell: adv. : The mob rushed pell-mell down the street. 
As: relat. pron. : This is not such behaviour as I expected. You 
crossed in the same boat as I did. 

adv. : You acted as if you were mad. He looks as old as (advbl. 
conj.) Methuselah. 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING, Pp. 226—229. 51 

As : adv. conj. : He whistled as he walked. 
Why : adv. : Why do you ask ? 

conj. : I insist on knowing why you said so. 
Bravo: interj. : ' Bravo ! well done ! ' they cried. 

noun : He is the companion of bravoes, bandits, and assassins. 

19. (i) When, conjunctive adverb (or adverbial conjunction) : 
qualifies are established and joins the clause you are established to the 
principal clause I will call on you. 

where, conj. adv. (or advbl. conj.) : qualifies to reside and joins clause 
you intend to reside to clause when you are established in the house. 

if, conj. joining clause I may (call) to prin. clause I will call on you. 

(ii) but, adv. simple, qualifying one. 

as, relat. pron., having for its antecedent, not house, but the fact that 
I had but one house stated in the antecedent clause : as is here equivalent 
to ' a fact which ' : cf. id quod in Latin. 

since, prep, governing then. 

then, adv. of time used as noun: see p. 190, Q. 7, note (b). 

20. Any, adjective of quantity with noun not expressed, — obj. 
of have: e.g. Have you any (money)? or indef. numeral adj.: Have 
you any (matches) ? 

none, adj. of quantity or number used here as noun: I have none 
(i.e. no money, or no matches). 

when, interrog. adv. of time — qualif. come. 

why, interrog. adv. of reason — qualif. is here. 

rejoicing, partic. pres. act. of intrs. verb to rejoice, lim. he. 

talking, gerund, present form, of act. trs. verb, nom. complement 
of is. 

random, noun abstr. — neut. sing. obj. — gov. by at. 

that, conjunct, subord. — joining clause He said that to clause // is 
not true. 

that, pron. demonstr. — neut. sing. obj. — gov. by said. 

same, adj. demonstr. lim. noun not expressed — obj. — gov. by saw. 

as, relat. pron. referring to antecedent noun understood with same — 
obj. — gov. by did (i.e. saw). 

21. Which, pron. interrog. — neut. sing. 3rd pers. nom. — subj. of is. 
which, pron. relat. — neut. sing. 3rd pers. referring to antecedent 

which. 

The expression Which is which is used interrogatively and relatively 
(e.g. ' Which is which ? ' ' It is by no means clear which is which ') to 
denote uncertainty in distinguishing between two or more objects. The 
case of the second which must depend upon its construction when the 
ellipsis in the sentence is supplied. If we understand the sentence thus, 
— ' Which is that which is wanted! ' — the relative is subject to is wanted: 

4—2 



52 ANALYSIS AND PARSING, Pp. 226—229. 

if we understand it thus, — 'Which is that which I want I' — the relative 
is object to want. 

forgiven, participle past, passive, of trs. verb, lim. he. (Unless 
directed to the contrary, students should parse the auxiliaries of mood 
and tense in combination with the participles or infinitives of the verb 
which they help to conjugate. Thus, was forgiven, verb, weak, trs. — 
pass, indie, past indef. sing. 3rd, — agreeing with he.) 

fault, noun com. — sing. obj. — retained object after passive verb was 
forgiven. See pp. 143 — 4, § 147. 

too, adv. of degree — qual. much. 

much, adv. of degree — qual. protests. 

methinks, verb, weak, intrs. impers. — act. indie, pres. indef. sing. 
3rd (me is the 1st pers. pron. sing. dat.). 

perish, verb, weak, intrs. — act. subj. pres. indef. sing. 3rd, — agreeing 
with thought. 

building: taking this as an active form used with a passive force (cf. 
p. 144, § 148), we may parse it thus: (1) partic. pres. of trs. verb, — act. 
with pass, meaning, — lim. ship; or having regard to the probable origin 
of the construction, we may parse it thus: (2) gerund, pres., of trs. verb, 
act. in form with pass, meaning, obj. gov. by lost a-, for prep, on or in : 
'the ship is a- building.'' 

thee, pron. pers. of 2nd pers. — sing. obj. (As sit is an intransitive 
verb, thee is of course not the object of sit. It is really the old dative 
and signifies for thyself. Bearing this fact in mind we may call thee 
reflexive object as a matter of convenience, but the verb has no transitive 
force. Cf. Fare thee well; Haste thee, nymph.) 

taken, participle past, pass, of trs. verb ' to take, ' lim. him, to which 
it is the complement, and not merely attributive. 'I saw the man 
taken ' means ' I saw the capture of the man,' not ' I saw the captured 
man.' The participle really forms an indirect predicate to the object: 
' I saw that the man was taken.'' Similarly ' I believed the man insane ' 
means, not 'I believed the insane man,' but 'I believed that the man 
was insane? See Mason's Eng. Gram. § 397. 

be, verb, defect, intrs. of incompl. predication, — act. subj. pres. sing. 
3rd, — agreeing with it. 

22. In, prep. — gov. front, 
the, demonst. adj. (def. art.), — lim. front, 
front, noun com. — neut. sing. obj. — gov. by in. 
of prep. — gov. eye. 

eye, noun com. — neut. sing. obj. — gov. by of. 

is, verb defect, intrs. of incompl. predication, — act. indie, pres. sing. 
3rd, — agreeing with window. 

a, demonstr. adj. (indef. art), — lim. windozv. 

clear, transparent, adj. of quality— pos. — lim. window. 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING, Pp. 226—229. 53 

window, noun com. — neut. sing. nom. — subj. of is. 

exactly, adv. of degree, — qualif. like. 

like, adj. of quality, — lim. window. 

glass, noun com. — neut. sing. obj. — gov. by like. 

watch, noun com. — neut. sing. obj. — gov. by of. 

When, conj. adv. — qual. falls and joining he is hurt and a man falls. 

man, noun com. — masc. sing. nom. — subj. of falls. 

falls, verb, strong, intrs. — act. indie, pres. indef. sing. 3rd, — agreeing 
with man. 

from, prep. — gov. horse. 

his, pronom. possess, adj. — lim. horse. 

horse, noun com. — neut. sing. obj. — gov. by from. 

he, demonstr. pron. of 3rd pers. {or 3rd pers. pron.) — masc. sing, 
nom. — subj. of is. 

often, adv. of time, — qual. hurt. 

seriously, adv. of degree, — qual. hurt. 

is hurt, verb, weak, trs. — pass, indie, pres. indef. sing. 3rd, — agreeing 
with he. 

He (see above), — subj. of rushed. 

rushed, verb, weak, intrs. — ac"t. indie, past indef. sing. 3rd, — agreeing 
with he. 

into, prep. — gov. fi eld. 
field, noun com. — neut. sing. obj. — gov. by into. 

and, conj. coord. — joining he rushed arid he fell. 

foremost ^ adj. demonstr. — superl. — lim. he. (Or adv. of place, — 
superl. — qual. fighting. ) 

fighting, participle pres. act. of trs. verb, — lim. he. 

fell (see above), — act. indie, past indef. sing. 3rd, — agreeing with he. 

Life, noun abstr. — neut. sing. nom. — subj. of has passed. 

has passed, verb, weak, intrs. — act. indie, pres. perf. sing. 3rd, — 
agreeing with life. 

with, prep. — gov. ?ne. 

me, pers. pron. of 1st pers. — sing. obj. — gov. by with. 

but, adv. of degree, — qual. roughly. 

roughly, adv. of manner, — qual. has passed. 

since, conj. subord. — joining Life has passed and I heard thee. 

I, pers. pron. of 1st pers. — sing. nom. — subj. of heard. 

heard, verb, weak, trs. — act. indie, past indef. sing. 1st, — agreeing 
with /. 

thee, pers. pron. of 2nd pers. — sing. obj. — gov. by heard. 

last, adv. of time, — superl. — qual. heard. 

23. Next: adj. Tell me in your next letter. 

adv. Tell me when next you write. 
No : adv. I can say no more. 



54 ANALYSIS AND PARSING, Pp. 226—229. 

No', adj. No house was left standing. 

equivalent to a sentence of denial : Was he here yesterday ? 
No, i.e. he was not here yesterday. See p. 181, § 191. 
The: def. article (or demonstr. adj.) The nights are cold. 

adv. The sooner the better: p. 182, § 193, 3 {c). 
Together : adv. They tied his hands together. 
Past: participial adj. The harvest is past. 

Forgive the follies of his past life. 

noun : Forget the past. 

prep. The driver ran past his signals. 

adv. The soldiers went past. 
Else : adv. It was he that did it and no one else. 
But : adv. He has but one child. 

prep. He lost all his children but one. 

conj. He had three children but lost two. 

with force of relat. pron. There was no one but felt sorry for 
him, i.e. who did not feel sorry for him: p. 129, § 131. 
Ere: conj. Come down ere my child die. 

prep. He will be found out ere long. Ere my arrival they 
had gone. 

24. Please (see note to Question), verb, weak, intrs. — act. imperat. 
or subj. pi. 2nd, — agreeing with you. (Or, according to its original 
construction, verb, weak, trs. impers. — act. subj. sing. 3rd, — followed 
by you in dative case, i.e. May it please you.) 

write, verb, strong, trs. — act. imperat. pi. 2nd, — agreeing with you 
understood. (Or, infin. pres. indef. — dependent on please.) 

Thank, verb, weak, trs. — act. indie, pres. indef. sing. 1st, — agreeing 
with / of which there is an ellipsis. 

Thanks, noun com. — neut. plur. obj. or nom. according as we fill 
in the ellipsis : thus ' I give you thanks ' (obj.), ' Thanks (nom.) are due 
to you. ' 

like, verb, weak, trs. — act. subj. (or indie.) pres. indef. plur. 2nd, — 
agreeing with you. (But formerly, if it like you, where like is impers. 
subj. sing. 3rd, and you is in the dative case.) 

you, pers. pron. of 2nd pers. — plur. obj. — obj. of trs. verb get, — used 
refiexively, ' Get yourselves gone. ' 

cheating, gerund, present form, of act. trs. verb to cheat, — obj. — gov. 
by of. 

having cheated, gerund, past form, — gov. by of. (These convenient 
compound forms of the gerund, e.g. being cheated, having cheated, having 
been cheated, are modern developments, the corresponding participles 
having been adopted for the purpose. ) 



SYNTAX, NOUNS, P. 240. 55 



CHAPTER XXIII. P. 240. 

The sentences in § 246 admit of correction in various ways. It 
would be possible, e.g. to make the phrase containing the participle 
in each case an absolute phrase. The form of expression would be 
grammatically correct, but in many instances the phraseology would 
be strained and awkward. Thus, in ordinary intercourse nobody would 
be likely to cast his sentence in the following form : ' We sailing in 
a yacht (absolute phrase), the coast seems to move faster than we,' 
or, 'They having arrived at the spot (absol. phr.), a scene of horror 
presented itself to their eyes.' The sentences have therefore been 
amended so as to make them conform not only to standards of gram- 
matical correctness but also to the usage of daily speech. 

1. The day being fine, I went out for a walk. 

2. As we sail in a yacht, &c. 

3. Though he courted the favour of neither rich nor poor, &c. 

4. Foiled and disgraced, he abandoned his candidature. 

5. Louis was ..a good man, but, as he was a bad ruler, his subjects 
rebelled. Or, ...but, being a bad ruler, he drove his subjects into 
rebellion. 

6. As he had been killed early, I sent a party, &c. Or, He had 
been killed early, so I sent, &c. (The position of early is, not in accord- 
ance with our idiom.) 

7. This attempt having failed, no further trial was made. Or, 
Having failed in this attempt, he (or they) made no further trial. 

8. As we (or they) travelled (or were travelling) along the line, the 
tower, &c. 

9. If we judge from the time taken, the race was rowed quicker 
(adv., see p. 182, § 193, 1 (b) and 2) than in any previous year. (The 
qualification Judging fro??i the time taken is not absurd as it may seem 
to be at first sight. How, it may be asked, can you judge whether the 
race was rowed quicker or slower except by the time taken ? The writer 
means however that, while the slower rate of the strokes over the course 
and the less exhausted condition of the crews at the finish might lead 
one to infer that the race was rowed slower than in any previous year, 
the stop-watch showed that it had actually been rowed quicker.) 

10. Having perceived the weakness of his poems, he now reissues 
them under new titles. Or, His poems now reappear- to us under new 
titles, their weakness having been perceived. 

11. Vainly endeavouring to suppress his emotion, he abruptly 
brought the service to an end. 



56 SYNTAX, NOUNS, P. 240. 

12. Seeing him left for dead upon the ground, his companions, &c. 
Or, When he was left for dead upon the ground, his companions, &c. 

13. When they arrived (or, On their arrival) at the spot, a scene, 
&c. 

14. Having hastily discussed [or, After hastily discussing) the 
position of affairs, they adopted prompt measures and sent a telegram. 
Or, The position of affairs having been hastily discussed (absol. phr.), 
prompt measures were adopted, &c. 

15. Not having had the accounts audited for some years, the 
directors resolved that the services, &c. Or, The accounts not having 
been properly audited for some years {absol. phr.), it was resolved by 
the directors, &c. 



CHAPTER XXIV. P. 250. 

1. ' He had few followers,' i.e. not many : ' He had a few followers,' 
i. e. some at least, though not many. 

' I got little credit for it,' i.e. not much : ' I got a little credit for it,' 
i.e. some at least, though not a great deal. 

' She has a black and white pony,' i.e. a piebald pony : 'a black and 
a white pony,' i.e. two ponies, one black and one white. See pp. 244 — 5, 
§ 253. 

2. 1. Say to things of that kind: p. 242, § 248, last paragraph. 

2. Say that say just what they think: that refers to a plural ante- 
cedent 7iien and the verb to which that is the subject must therefore be 
plural: p. 248, second paragraph. 

3. Say as the father did: p. 246, § 254. 

4. Say / had rather : more rather is pleonastic, rather being a 
comparative form. Say he were neither a soldier, or he should be neither 
a soldier : had is subjunctive and the sentence means ' I would sooner 
have it that he were neither a soldier nor a lawyer, ' ' I should wish that 
he were neither a soldier nor a lawyer ' : the preference is expressed 
either for a state of things contrary to fact (if he actually is a soldier or 
a lawyer), or for a future state of things, not yet realised and therefore 
purely conjectural (if his career is at present undecided). The law of 
sequence of tenses requires were in the dependent clause. Say nor 
instead of or as the correlative of neither. Repeat a before lawyer : a 
soldier and a lawyer are distinct persons : p. 244, § 253. 

5. Say Neither of these persons considers himself competent; p. 242, 
§250. 

6. Say his for their, retaining every, or change eveiy boy to all the 
boys and retain their: p. 242, § 250. Say anyone whom for whoever: 



SYNTAX, ADJECTIVES, ETC., Pp. 250—252. 57 

the pronoun governed by saw must be in the objective case. Omitting 
the antecedent, object of punish, we may legitimately say he would 
punish whomsoever he saw idle: p. 249, § 258, last paragraph. 

3. See note in text. 

4. See note in text. 

5. See pp. 128 — 9, § 130. 

Additional examples of ambiguous relatives : I met the policeman 
who told me of the burglary. His houses which are to let are in the 
High Street. I sent the parcel to my brother who is in India. I have 
lost your watch which you lent me. 

6. Seep. 213, § 223. 

7. See pp. 247—9, § 2 5^> an( ^ f° r omission of relative, p. 126, first 
paragraph. 

Say Let him and ?ne settle; the transitive verb let requires the 
objective case. Say whom, object of invite. 

8. Either, distributive; such, demonstrative; one, indefinite; as, 
relative. 

His conduct is such as fills me with disgust. Your present story is 
not the same as you told me yesterday. 

You, see Key, p. 54, Q. 24. Hi?nself, reflexive personal pronoun 
of 3rd person, used with emphatic force, in apposition with subject he. 
Such, demonstrative adjective, lim. day. 

9. 1. Say at first for firstly which is used to signify 'in the first 
place ' when a series of considerations is enumerated, firstly, secondly, 
thirdly, lastly ; even in this connexion the use of the word is condemned 
by purists on the ground that first is itself an adverb (" I detest your 
ridiculous and most pedantic neologism of firstly," says De Quincey). 
Say who for whom: the object of tell is not whom, but the noun clause 
who it was. Say afterwards for after as more in accordance with our 
idiom, though both words are adverbs. Say she for her: the complement 
of the predicate was refers to the subject and must therefore conform to 
it in construction. Accordingly the verb to be takes the same case after 
it as before it. The subject it (I found that it was she) is in the nomi- 
native case ; therefore its complement must be in the nominative case. 

2. Say none of them for neither of these: neither implies duality and 
there are three courses. Say nor, the correlative of neither. Say 
seems: the subjects are singular and nor is disjunctive; p. 254. Say 
either (1) who. people think, is; whom cannot stand as subject to is: 
or (2) whom people think to be : p. 249, last paragraph. Say have occu- 
pied; the subject that refers to a plural antecedent men; p. 248, second 
paragraph. 



58 SYNTAX, ADJECTIVES, ETC., Pp. 250—252. 

3. Say who, subject of had been murdered; p. 249, last paragraph. 
Say (1) a girl ten years old, or (2) a girl ten years of age, or (3) a girl of 
the age of ten years. In (1) old is an adjective limiting girl and ten years 
is an adverbial objective. 

4. Say who, subject of had settled; p. 249, last paragraph. Say 
his returning : returning is a gerund, not a participle : the talk is not of 
hi?n, but of his return. See Key, p. 68, Q. 37, 8 and 14. 

10. See note to Question. 

11. 1. Say me for I: the transitive verb let requires the objective 
case. 

2. Say whom ; p. 249, § 259, second paragraph. 

3. Say last of three things, latter of two. On more preferable see 
p. .244, § 251, last two paragraphs. 

4. Say If this be he whom we mean : the antecedent has been 
attracted to the case of the omitted relative. For nominative after be 
see above, Q. 9, 1. 

5. Say the pickpocket and the policeman, as they are two persons; 
p. 245. 

6. Say Birds of this kind, p. 242, second paragraph. 

7. Say as you do ; pp. 245 — 6, § 254. 

8. Say is the most important of all or is ?nore important than all 
the others; p. 243, § 251, 2. 

9. Say The logical and the historical analysis, or The logical and 
historical analyses, and make the verb plural, coincide; p. 245, § 253. 

10. Say whom, governed by p reposition for ; p. 249, § 259, second 
paragraph. 

11. Say to anyone zvho, or, omitting the antecedent anyone, to who- 
soever : the subject of wishes must be in the nominative case: cf. above, 
Q. 2, 6. 

12. Say from whom they come, showing clearly the government 
of the relative by the preposition : but see p. 249, § 259, second 
paragraph. 

1 3. Say what they do not see : the relative who is plural, referring 
to a plural antecedent those, and the persons who cannot describe are the 
same as the persons who do not see. 

14. Say It was more amiable, though less dignified, than all the 
party squabbles, &c. (or, than any of the party squabbles, &c). It could 
not be one of the party squabbles which preceded it ; p. 243, § 251, 2. 

CHAPTER XXV. P. 260. 

1. For (1) see p. 253, § 260; for (2) see p. 241, § 248; for (3) see 
P- 233, § 235 ; for (4) see p. 246, § 256. 

2. See pp. 253—5, § 26 °- 



SYNTAX, VERBS, Pp. 260—268. 59 

3. In justification of the singular verb compels it may be said that 
the two nouns jointly form one complex idea : p. 254, first paragraph. 

Become should be becomes, as the subjects, ceremony, crown, sword, 
truncheon, robe, are all singular and nor is disjunctive: p. 254, third 
paragraph. 

4. 1. Say were: the subjects are two, this man, that man, joined 
by and; p. 253, last paragraph. 

2. Say is. 3. Say was. 4. Say regteires; p. 254, second 
paragraph. 

5. Say depends; p. 254, third paragraph; depend has doubtless 
been attracted to the plural by lives just before it. Say their for his, 
or retain his and substitute a man's life for men's lives. 

6. Say zvas. 7. Say. moves ; p. 254. 

8. Say Neither to ere you invited nor was I; p. 254, last paragraph. 

9. Say prepares ; see No. 5 above. 

10. Say has : nothing is singular : attraction by misfortunes. 

n. Say Bacon's Essays is the more important, &c. For is see 
P« 253, § 260, 2, second paragraph; for more see p. 243, § 251, 1. 

12. Say Three spoonfuls of water to one of wine is not nearly 
sufficient', see note to example in text. Near can be justified as used 
adverbially; p. 182, § 193, 1 (b). 

5. See p. 97, fourth paragraph, and cf. p. 100, § 101, for the 
appropriateness of the term. 

He lent me a knife. I taught him French. 

She is like him {i.e. to him). He is near me {i.e. to me). 

(1) They killed him. I spoke to her. 

(2) He and she are here. Lend me these books. 

(3) You write very badly. You are a bad writer. 

6. See pp. 144 — 5, 147 — 9, §§ 149 — 151, 154 — 6. For construction 
with if see note in text to Q. 8. 

7. See pp. 144 — 5, § 149. For may see note in text. 

8. See note in text. 

9. See note in text, and p. 147, § 154. 

10. Seep. 146, § 153. 

Additional examples to those in note to Question : 
' If he catch them they will not soon forget it.' 
' If he co??ie soon we shall see him.' 
' Thou shalt stone him with stones that he die.' 
1 See that all be ready.' 
1 Though he slay me yet will I trust him.' 
' He will never get the prize, though he work his hardest.' 

11. See note in text. 



60 SYNTAX, VERBS, Pp. 260—268. 

12. See note in text. 

13. See Table, p. 154. 
Nouns. 

1. ' To speak is sometimes easier than to hear ' (Simple In- 
finitive). 

2. ' He rose to speak ' (Gerundial Infinitive). 

3. 'He is fond of speaking'' (Gerund). 

4. ' The speaking of the chairman was very ineffective. ' The 
Verbal Noun is not to be regarded as a part of the verb except in so far 
as it has been formed from the verb : it is used as any other noun would 
be used : thus it may often take a plural form, and its meaning is limited 
by an adjective, not by an adverb : e.g. ' The comings and the goings of 
our visitors keep us in a state of continual unrest' : 'The lengthy (adj.) 
speaking of the chairman was very ineffective,' but 'He is fond of 
speaking (gerund) lengthily'' (adverb). 

Adjectives. 

1. ''Speaking at too great length he wearied the audience' 
(Present Participle). 

2. 'The chairman having spoken, the meeting was adjourned' 
(Past Participle). 

14. Subject, To perfor?n. The sentence ' Performing is better than 
promising? would by some writers be said to contain two Verbal Nouns : 
according to the phraseology adopted on p. 151 we describe them as 
Gerunds. Verbal Nouns, as we have applied the term, occur in the 
following sentence: 'The performing of duties is better than the 
promising.'' 

!i. that the town was bombarded. 
2. that Liszt played the piano. 
3. that the queen opened parliament. 
Substitution of Verbal Nouns: (1) the bombarding of the town; 
(2) the playing of the piano by Liszt ; (3) the opening of parliament by 
the queen. 

But in this sentence is a preposition and hear (i.e. to hear) is the 
Infinitive which, as the equivalent of a noun, is the object governed by 
the preposition : .' He cannot choose except to hear.'' 

15. Refer to tabulated statement, Key, p. 31, Q. 24. 

To tell the truth, Gerundial infinitive, introducing parenthetical 
phrase; to blame, Gerundial infin. used predicatively qualifying you ; 
to sleep, Gerundial infin., qualifying going and marking purpose; to 
kill, Gerundial infin., qualifying going to sleep and marking purpose. 

To think, Simple infinitive, as an exclamation ; equivalent to a noun ; 
we might substitute The idea (that any one, &c). To live, Gerundial 
infin., qualifying content, marking respect: content with living. To do, 
Gerundial infin. qualifying nothing, marking purpose. 



SYNTAX, VERBS, Pp. 260—268. 61 

16. For definition see p. 287 : for derivation see note to Question. 
Forgetting (forming with was past imperfect tense) limits he and takes 

as its object the noun clause that a ball... was likely to twist. Relumed, 
limits ball, passive past participle of transitive verb to return. Dividing, 
limits net and takes as its object courts. 

17. Fearing, pres. part. act. of trs. verb to fear, limits / and takes 
as its object the noun clause that the load was injuring the horses. 
Injuring (forms with was past imperfect tense), pres. part, act., limits 
load and takes as its object horses. Travelling, gerund, present form, 
of intrs. verb to travel, objective case governed by preposition in. 
Entrancing, pres. part. act. of trs. verb to entrance, used here as attri- 
butive adjective limiting scenery. 

18. See pp. 151 — 2, §§ 158, 159. For examples see p. 154, § 162. 
Participle : I met him as he was walking down the street. Walking 

down the street I met him. 

Adjective: He has a part in the new play as first walking gentleman. 
You are a walking advertisement of your tailor. 

Verbal Noun : The walking of the winner was objected to by the 
referee. We were disturbed by the walking to and fro of the man in 
the room upstairs. 

19. (i) In Old English the Verbal Noun ended in -ung and the 
active Participle in -ende, -inde, or -and. Of these participial forms 
-ende and -and fell into disuse and -inde became -ing, which remains 
with us as the suffix of our Present Participle. The suffix -ung also fell 
into disuse and -ing became the ending of the Verbal Noun. 

The ending of the Simple Infinitive was -an or -ian, afterwards -en 
or -ien; then the -n was dropped, the -e final became mute, and the 
preposition to was prefixed to this infinitive in place of the lost in- 
flexion. The Gerundial Infinitive was the dative of the Simple Infinitive 
with to prefixed. It ended in -anne, -enne; this inflexion was reduced 
to -en and at length disappeared altogether. Hence between to bind, 
Simple Infinitive, and to bind, Gerundial Infinitive, there is at the 
present day no difference of form though the difference of function 
remains. 

Thus modern Verbal forms in -ing were originally either Verbal 
Nouns or Present Participles. They were never Infinitives, Simple or 
Gerundial, though they have often been so represented. Binding may 
once have been either bind-ung (Verbal Noun) or bind-inde (Present 
Participle), but it never was bind-an (Simple Infinitive) or to bind-enne 
(Gerundial Infinitive) for bind-an and bind-enne have become to bind. 

(ii) See note in text, and Key, p. 68, Q. 37, 8 and 14. 

20. Verbal Noun. The judging of the prize-committee gave 
general satisfaction. 



62 SYNTAX, VERBS, Pp. 260—268. 

Gerund : \n judging the exhibits the committee spent four hours. 

Participle : The committee are judging the exhibits. Judging the 
distance with deliberation, he remained for several minutes without 
moving a muscle. 

21. r. Say I heard of his saying that you were ill. See note in 
text to Q. 19 (ii) above. The use of as for that is a vulgarism. 

2. Say / expect soon to hear (or to hear soon) of its being done. For 
its see reference in preceding example. 

3. Say The forgiving of injuries ^ &c. or Forgiving injuries, &c. The 
two constructions must not be blended as they are in the example. 

4. Say His friends were greatly (or much, or very much) alarmed 
to find that he had weakened instead of strengthening his position (or 
that he had weakened and not strengthened his position). 

5. Say If only I had run the last few yards instead of walking, I 
should have caught the train easily enough. 

6. Say If I had not broken your stick instead of hitting you with it, 
you tvould never have ricn home or have begun to tell lies of such a kind 
as none but foolish men believe. The adverb never qualifies the verb in 
each of the coordinate clauses which follow it : 

1. have run home. 



You .would never j , 

2. have begun to tell lies. 

Nor is therefore a redundant negative. 

For those kind see p. 242, § 248, last paragraph. 

Nobody is singular and requires a singular verb believes, which would 
have an unpleasant sound immediately following the plural noun men. 
None {i.e. no one) is also strictly singular, but is commonly used at the 
present day as a plural, signifying not any. 

22. For the shortest possible form of stating the distinction of uses 
see p. 173, § 179. The following is still short but not quite so short: 

Persons used to express 

1st pers. shall \ c ' . 

n r . , .j, \ mere futurity. 

2nd and 3rd pers. will \ J 

1st pers. will ) determination, promise. 

2nd and 3rd pers. shall ) compulsion. 

1st and 2nd pers. shall \ m ^ Mm[ ^ tions> 

3rd pers. will ) 

See p. 256, § 263 for Table of Uses. 

Because they denote on the part of the speaker determination to do 

something which if it were possible he would avoid doing at all. See 

p. 174, first paragraph. 

23. See Table, p. 257, § 264. 

1. Say If I were to run quick I should fall', were, not was, as the 
hypothesis is unfounded ; I have no intention of running quick. For 



SYNTAX, VERBS, Pp. 260—268. 63 

justification of quick see p. 182, § 193, 1 {b). Use should, expressing 
contingent futurity, not would, which expresses determination. 

2. Say How shall we know whether (or which) is the greater of the 
two? Whether, as an interrogative pronoun signifying 'which of two,' 
is practically obsolete: cf. Matthew xxi. $\. For greatest see p. 243, 
§251,1. 

3. Say Directly we fight we shall be beaten, &c. 

24. For the Rule of Sequence see p. 257, § 265. 

1. He said he wouldn't give me any. 

2. I said that I would try again. 

3. She told you and me that she would come. 

4. As soon as he had gone away, &c. (Or, if the past incident is 
related by a graphic speaker in the present indefinite, 'As soon as he 
has gone away, he writes and tells you and me to come directly.') 

5. I intended to buy. (See p. 258, § 265, last paragraph. People 
commonly employ the perfect form of infinitive with verbs whose import 
is future to signify that the intention was not realised. This mode of 
expression is illogical but well established as an English idiom.) 

6. I was going to write him a letter. 

7. They all hoped to succeed. 

8. Swift, but a few months before, was willing to hazard all the 
horrors of a civil war. (If we express ourselves in this form, we mean 
that, a few months before the time mentioned, Swift was willing to run 
a future risk. If we say ' Swift, a few months before, was willing to 
have hazarded the horrors of a civil war,' we mean that a few months 
before the time mentioned Swift was willing to run a future risk but 
something prevented him from doing so. See note in Key to Example 5 
above.) 

9. Each of the last three was expected to stop and vote. (On last 
three and three last, see p. 244, § 252. For singular ivas with each 
see p. 242, § 250.) 

10. I had hoped never to see the statues again. 

25. Change the tenses, if the report is thrown into the past time 
(after He said), in accordance with the rules for Sequence of Tenses, 
P- ^57> § 265. 

Under the same condition change now to then: also this to that, 
here to there. 

If the report is made (as is usually the case) neither by the speaker 
nor by one of the persons addressed, but by an independent party, 
change all pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons into corresponding 
pronouns of the 3rd person : thus / becomes he, we or you becomes 
they, my becomes his, and ours or yours becomes theirs. 

See the tabulated forms, p. 259. 

' Tell me of a single enterprise in which you {or we) have succeeded, 



64 SYNTAX, VERBS, Pp. 260—268. 

and, if you cannot, give me some better reason than your own word for 
believing that you {or we) are blameless. I will enquire into the facts 
and judge for myself. 

26. {He said that) They could not conquer America. If he were 
an American, as he was an Englishman, while a foreign troop was 
landed in his country, he would never lay down his arms, — never, 
never, never ! 

27. {He said that) People had not been quite as calm, he was told, 
as sensible men should be. They should bear in mind the advice of 
Lord Stanley. They must not let their newspapers bring them into 
that frame of mind under which their Government, if it desired war, 
might be driven to engage in it. 

28. Ethel loquitur-. — 

' It will not be my fault if I do not succeed. ' 
' It will not be my fault if you do not succeed. ' 
' It will not be your fault if I do not succeed. ' 
• It will not be your fault if you do not succeed. ' 

29. 1. The dog, snapping at any one who came in its way, was 
seized by the police according to law, on account of its being not only 
dangerous but also unmuzzled. 

(For whomsoever see p. 249, § 258, last paragraph. Laid should 
of course be lay, intransitive, but people would not be lying at all unless 
they were hopelessly intoxicated : came or stood is the right word. 
For of it being see note in text to Q. 19 (ii), p. 264. Even in its 
amended form the sentence is exceedingly awkward though gram- 
matically correct.) 

2. Bicycling down a hill, he was tripped up by a stone and broke 
his leg. (Or, As he was bicycling down a hill, a stone tripped him up 
and his leg was broken.) He lay there insensible (for) some time, and 
when they had awoke him with some spoonfuls of brandy, he could 
hardly recognise his friend. 

(For the first sentence see p. 232, § 234. Awakened is not gram- 
matically wrong, as awaken, like awake and wake, is used both 
transitively and intransitively. Awaken is employed however for the 
most part in a figurative sense. We should be more likely to say 
aroused him or woke him up than to use either awaken or awake. For 
spoons full see note in text to Q. 4, last example, p. 261. In couldrit 
hardly the not is redundant, and the expression (corrected) recognise 
who his friend was is pleonastic in meaning: to recognise a person 
means to know who the person is. In whom his friend was we require 
who, as is apparent on substituting a demonstrative for the relative, — 
His friend was he, not him. See Key, p. 57, Q. 9, 1.) 

3. See note in text. 



SYNTAX, VERBS, Pp. 260—268. 65 

4. Whom do you think I met to-day ? Your two cousins ! 
The elder had on a new and most fashionable pair of boots, just like 
those which (or just such as) you saw Henry wearing yesterday, and 
the other was dressed in nearly the same way. 

(For eldest see p. 243, § 251, 1. For repetition of article see 
pp. 244 — 5, § 253. For like see pp. 245 — 6, § 254. The adverb 
nearly must go with the word which it qualifies. Dressed the same, 
i.e. ' dressed in the same fashion ' ; colloquial use of adjective for adverb.) 

30. 1. See note to example in text. 

2. 'He had two sisters, — the one a wealthy spinster, the other 
a farmer's wife.' This is apposition. ' He had two sisters : one was 
a wealthy spinster, the other was a farmer's wife.' Here we have two 
coordinate clauses to explain who the sisters were. Either form is 
correct, but the blending of the two produces an ungrammatical result. 
It is in any case pleonastic to say that ' the other (sister), the wife of a 
farmer, is a married sister. ' 

3. 'I cannot write any more now, and (I) remain, yours 
sincerely.' Or, ' Excuse my not writing any more, and believe me, 
yours sincerely.' The clauses joined by the coordinative conjunction 
must stand in the same relation. 

4. 'My lawyer is a man (1) who I know is trustworthy,' or 
(2) ' whom I know to be trustworthy ' : p. 249, last paragraph. 

5. 'When Nelson was ill (1) he complained of the servants' 
letting him lie as if (he were) a log and taking no notice': or (2) 'he 
complained that the servants let him lie as if (he were) a log and took no 
notice' : or (3) 'he complained, "The servants let me lie as if (I were) 
a log and take no notice."' Forms (1) and (2) are in Indirect Narrative: 
form (3) quotes Nelson's own words. As the sentence stands there is a 
double confusion (a) of gerund and finite verb, (b) of tense. 

6. ' Should any one not receive the goods ordered in ten days, 
he is requested to write to the advertiser ' : or, ' If you do not receive 
the goods ordered in ten days, please write to the advertiser.' In the 
original sentence, any one, the subject of the dependent clause, is the 
3rd person, and you, the subject of the principal clause, is the 2nd 
person. 

7. 'This is the man whom I perceived to be in fault,' or 
' This is the man who, I perceived, was in fault ' : see p. 249, last 
paragraph. 

8. 'I think it may assist the reader to place them before him in 
chronological order': here it is an anticipatory subject to the real 
subject, viz. the noun-infinitive to place, &c. : or, 'I think I may assist 
the reader by placing them, &c.' 

9. ' Mrs Jones presents her compliments to Miss Robinson, and 
she will be much obliged if Miss Robinson will prevent her dog from 

W. E. G. K. 5 



66 SYNTAX, VERBS, Pp. 260—268. 

coming into Mrs Jones's garden.' An attempt to write a letter in the 
third person often results in obscurity of expression or bad grammar. 
Mrs Jones would have been saved from both of these evils by writing, 
' If you will kindly prevent your dog from coming into my garden, 
I shall be much obliged. ' 

10. ' Two or more swimming-prizes (or More swimming-prizes 
than one) are to be given for boys thirteen years old (or thirteen years 
of age).' One is singular; more than one is plural. For the alternative 
forms years old and years of age see Key, p. 58, Q. 9, 3. 

31. The criticism on (1), (2) and (4) is given in the note to the 
Question. 

(3) Phenomenal belongs to the vocabulary of philosophy and 
means 'pertaining to phenomena,' i.e. the appearances of things as 
distinguished from the things in themselves. Journalists, for whom 
extraordinary and remarkable were not sufficiently emphatic, pressed 
pheno?nenal into their service as a substitute, and in so doing they have 
been followed by writers who ought to know better. Miss Ninetta 
Crummies, in Nicholas Nickleby, was advertised in theatrical circles as 
' The Infant Phenomenon,' and it seems not unlikely that to Dickens's 
jest we owe the erroneous use by newspaper writers of the word 
phenomenal. 

(5) This idiom is thoroughly established. Past participles are 
sometimes used to denote a general character or habit : thus ' a well- 
read man ' is a man who has read much, ' a well-behaved man ' is a man 
who usually behaves well, 'an out-spoken man' is a man who commonly 
speaks out, and ' a mistaken man ' is a man who ordinarily makes 
mistakes. The peculiarity therefore in the idiom ' If I am not mis- 
taken ' lies in the fact that mistaken here denotes not a habit but 
a special act of mistaking. (See Nesfield's English Grammar, pp. 71 
and 210.) 

(6) Oral is the word required. 

(7) Transpire means literally ' exhale ' and metaphorically ' leak 
out,' 'ooze out,' 'become public' Events happen or take place: 
secrets ooze out or transpire. 

32. 1. ' Who did you see?' ' Who is this for?' A transitive 
verb and a preposition govern the objective case. See p. 249, § 259, 
second paragraph. 

2. ' Nobody but he could have done it.' But is a preposition here 
and requires him. 

3. 'You dance just like she does.' See p. 246, first paragraph. 

4. ' There is not one of his books that are worth reading. ' 

' His book is .one of the silliest that has been published this 
season. ' 

Wrong concord of the verb arid the relative pronoun that which 



SYNTAX, VERBS, Pp. 260—268. 67 

refers to one as its antecedent in the first sentence and to books in the 
second. 

5. ' It's not them that are to blame.' For the case following to be 
see Key, p. 57, Q. 9, 1. 

6. ' The bill was only carried by a small majority.' 

Even the best writers misplace only with a slovenly disregard of its 
force. 

7. 'He seems to completely ignore the facts of the case.' See 
p. 266, note in text to Q. 29, 3rd example. 

8. ' Iron is the most useful of all the other metals. ' 

'Iron is more useful than all metals' {or 'than any metal'). 
See pp. 243—4, § 251, 2. 

9. ' This is very different to that. ' 

' I beg to differ with you.' See p. 277, § 277. 

10. 'Everybody wants their order executed first.' See p. 242, 
§250. 

11. ' Those sort of books are useless.' See p. 242, first paragraph. 

12. 'Marching across the desert, not a word was spoken.' See 
P- 232, § 234. 

33. Comparing English with Latin, a highly inflexional language, 
we see that there is no concord in English between the adjective and its 
noun in gender, case, or number (except that the pronominal demon- 
strative adjectives this and that become these and those when used with 
nouns in the plural). In Latin there is concord of number, gender, and 
case between the noun and its adjective. See p. 241, § 248. A similar 
comparison may be made as regards the relative pronoun in the two 
languages. See p. 247, § 258. In verbs we speak of the concord 
between the verb and its subject, but very few inflexions of the verb 
remain to show it : e.g. loved is used in all persons, singular and plural, 
except in the 2nd person singular, and the 2nd person singular is the 
form that for ordinary purposes is obsolete. 

Next, in respect of government, we may observe that in English 
nouns the nominative and objective cases have the same form (see p. 96, 
§ 96) while for the inflexion of the possessive case we often substitute 
the preposition of. Other relations are expressed by prepositions (see 
p. 95, first paragraph) and are uniformly followed by the objective case. 

34. See p. 260, note to Q. 1, and remarks in Key giving refer- 
ences. 

(a) Say is a patriot: p. 242, § 250. 

{b) Say that are managed: the antecedent to that is things, not one, 
and that is the subject of are managed. 

{c) Say was : the subject number is singular. 

(d) Say confinedst or didst confine: p. 248, first example in second 
paragraph. 

5—2 



68 SYNTAX, VERBS, Pp. 260—268. 

35. 1. The construction is right if tested by universal practice, 
wrong if tested by the etymology of news: p. 89, § 93 (3). 

2. See p. 253, § 260, 1. 

3. Appears should be appear, and its should be their. It is true 
that every is distributive and its construction therefore singular (p. 242, 
§ 250), but here we have two subjects joined by and, not forming one 
idea (p. 254, first paragraph), and the construction is therefore plural. 

4. The singular is right : p. 254, second paragraph. 

36. See p. 96, § 96. 

(a) Me, Ethical dative : p. 238 (10): death, nominative, being the 
subjective complement after the verb of incomplete predication is. See. 
Key, p. 57, Q. 9, 1. 

(b) concealment, objective governed by transitive verb let: wo?'m, 
objective governed by adjective like, p. 245, § 254: cheek,- objective 
governed by preposition on. 

(c) When two nouns are joined by and the possessive inflexion is 
usually added only to the second : p. 98, § 98, last paragraph but one. 

{d) You, nominative of are understood, —for such as you are. 



37. 1. Say knewest or didst know, agreeing with subject thou. 
2. Say delights, agreeing with singular noun nothing. 

Say was: p. 254, second paragraph. 

Say is: p. 254, third paragraph. 

Say for/ns : p. 254, second paragraph. 

Say is, agreeing with subject posture: p. 255, second paragraph. 

Say are : one is singular, more than one is plural. 

Say my: see note in text to Q. 19 (ii), p. 264. He objects not 
to me, but to my having the book: here having \% a gerund. With this, 
that, each, all, either, neither, the construction in the possessive is not 
used: e.g. 'I doubt this being true,' 'Oblige me by all leaving the 
room,' ' I am afraid of each failing in her examination.' Similar uses of 
nouns not in the possessive case occur in good writers : e.g. ' I am afraid 
of mischief resulting from this,' 'There is no record of any payment 
having been made, ' ' I was surprised at the girl saying so. ' When the 
noun or pronoun is not in the possessive case the forms in -ing are 
participles but participles used with the force of gerunds. (See Mason's 
English Grammar, § 494, and Nesfield's English Grami7iar, pp. 74 
and 212.) 

9. Say was for were. The clause introduced by If is not really 
hypothetical : the meaning is, ' You admit that I was old enough to be 
married. Very well ; then in that case I am old enough to manage my 
father's house.' See note in text to Q. 12, p. 262. 

10. Say were: there are two subjects joined by and. 

11. Say was: p. 254, second paragraph. Say not invented. We 



SYNTAX, VERBS, Pp. 260—268. 69 

invent something which did not exist before: we discover something 
which existed before but was unknown. 

12. This is legitimate, forty years being regarded collectively as 
forming one period : these would be equally legitimate, with reference to 
the units of which the period is composed. 

13. Say does and it if the disjunctive or is retained (p. 254, third 
paragraph), or say and for or and retain plural verb do and them. 

14. / is wrong after the preposition between. The case of the noun 
or pronoun used with the gerund is discussed above, in the answer to 
Example 8. Personal and relative pronouns should always be put in 
the possessive case in this construction. The sentence thus becomes, 
' He must decide between your and my going to him and his coming to 
us.' It must be admitted that this form of expression is harsh and 
awkward, and many writers would prefer to say, ' He must decide 
between you and me going to him and him coming to us.' This 
however is not much more euphonious and it is moreover liable to be 
misunderstood, in its half- completed state, suggesting that the decision 
is to be between you and me instead of being between our going and his 
coming. When a difficulty of this sort arises in composition the best 
plan is to cast the sentence in an entirely fresh form. Our language is 
not so poor in modes of expression as to make it necessary to spend time 
in tinkering what is bound to be clumsy even if we succeed in making it 
grammatical. How easy to say, ' He must decide whether you and I 
are to go to him or he is to come to us ' ! Observe in the original 
sentence that or is put instead of and. We cannot decide between one 
thing or another : between means ' in the middle of two.' 



CHAPTER XXVI. P. 278. 

1. See pp. 269 — 271, § 267. For as see p. 272, § 270. For 
classification of adverbs see pp. 181 — 2, §§ 192, 193. 

Subordinative Conjunctions are classified on p. 197, § 208. Coordi- 
native Conjunctions may be grouped as follows: 

1. Cumulative — and, both. 

2. Adversative — but, yet, nevertheless. 

3. Alternative — either — or, neither — nor. 

For but see p. 64, § 66 ; also Key, p. 54, Q. 23. 

2. See Key, p. 16, Q. 7. 

3. See p. 186, § 195. 

Conjunctions join words or sentences: Prepositions govern nouns or 
pronouns. See p. 269, § 267. 
See note in text to Question. 



7o SYNTAX, ADVERBS, ETC. Pp. 278—284. 



4. r. Say ' Should the frost continue as sharp as it was last week, 
&c.' There must be congruity in the things which we compare. There 
is no common basis for comparison between a frost and a week. The 
ellipsis might pass muster however in colloquial though not in literary 
English. As I hope it may sounds less awkward than which I do hope 
it ?nay. 

2. Say as well as I (do) : as is not a preposition, requiring an 
objective case, but a conjunction, followed by a pronoun in the same 
case as the pronoun they which preceded. 

3. Omit redundant and: pp. 274 — 5, § 274. Say from for to. 

4. Say has regretted, for many a, though it involves the idea of 
plurality, always has a singular construction : accordingly they have beeti 
deprived must be changed to he has been deprived. Say of which for 
from which in connexion with deprived. And is rightly inserted : p. 275, 
§ 274. Say and which it was impossible for him to carry to his new 
country instead of the awkward passive construction. What was im- 
possible was not the pleasures but the carrying of the pleasures. 

5. See Key, p. 65, Q. 30, 3, and note in text, p. 266. 



the scheme 



5. Absolve from sin 
Abhorrence of deceit 
Acquit of a charge 
Adapted to his purpose 

,, for the stage 
Agreeable to the taste 
Averse to ) 
,, from j 
Call on a friend 
,, to the guard 
,, for a person or thing 
Change of air 

,, for a shilling 
Confer a title on a man 
,, with a man 
,, about a thing 
Confide in a person 

,, a secret to a friend 
Correspond with a person 

,, to a. thing 

Discourage from doing 
Eager for the fray 

in the contest 



Expert in ) . . * 

,, at i P la y m s S olf 

Glad to escape 

,, of his company 

,, at his success 
Made of paper 

,, by machinery 

,, with hands 

,, to sell 

,, hi Germany 

,, for exportation 
Need of help 

,, for alarm 

,, to beg 
Prejudice against foreigners 
Provide for a rainy day 
,, with an umbrella 
,, against a storm 
Taste of sugar 

„ for music 

,, in decoration 
Thirst for knowledge 
Worthy of distinction 



Exception to a rule 

We may say that there is an analogy between things, or that one 
thing has analogy to or with another. In this sentence the use of the 



SYNTAX, ADVERBS, ETC. Pp. 278—284. 71 

verb bears makes to the more suitable preposition : we bear one thing to 
another. The adjective analogous takes to only. 

Say ' danger from him ' : we are in danger of a. thing from a person. 

6. For, since, but, till, after, before, are examples ; thus — 
Prep. I ask for justice. 

Conj. You won't be paidy^r he has been made bankrupt. 

Prep. He has been ill since the spring. 

Conj. What is the good of my talking since you won't listen ? 

Prep. The battle went on till evening. 

Conj. They fought till it was dark. 

For but and after see p. 64, § 66, and for before see p. 269, § 267. 

7. 1. Riding across the battle-field, I saw many dead soldiers. 

2. I do not remember ever to have seen such a storm. 

3. His success is the result of neither system nor strategy. 

4. Lost near the market-place a gentleman's large Spanish blue 
cloak. 

5. He frequently took up the Bible, but seldom without shedding 
tears. 

6. The beaux, as well as the women, of that day, used the abomin- 
able art of painting their faces. 

7. Erected by his brother, as a mark of affection, to the memory of 
John Phillips, accidentally shot. 

8. Wanted for a gentleman a pianoforte with carved legs. 

9. Gentlemen waited on and rats caught by Solomon Gundy. 

10. We regret to say that yesterday a mad dog bit several other 
dogs and the editor of the Western News. 

11. Wanted, to open oysters, a boy with a reference. 

12. The procession was nearly a mile in length and was very 
impressive, as was also the sermon of the minister. 

13. A man while drunk was run over by a cab this morning in 
Cheapside. 

14. Cows' milk is better for children raw than boiled. 

15. A verb is transitive when its action passes to an object. 

8. 1. By he will not do so the writer probably means 'he will not 
show nobility of nature' : say he will not behave well. 

2. By instead of which the learned judge probably meant instead of 
properly using which. Say but instead of making a proper use of it, &c. 

3. Say, ' Salt is a condiment the lack of which makes potatoes 
taste nasty.' The aphorism in its original form reminds one of the 
schoolboy's essay on 'The Manufacture of Pins,' beginning with the 
statement, 'Pins have saved the lives of thousands.' ' How so?' asked 
the master. 'By not swallowing them,' said the boy. 

4. See Key, p. 66, Q. 31 (5). 



72 SYNTAX, ADVERBS, ETC. Pp. 278—284. 

5. Say 'He brought his life to a close by committing suicide.' The 
act of suicide was the close of his life, not towards its close. 

6. See p. 267, Q. 31 (4) note in text. 

7. None can mean only no guilelessness. The writer intended to 
say, ' The guilelessness of his own heart led him to expect 110 guile in 
others. ' 

8. What sufferers from defective vision would like to have restored 
or brought back is perfect sight : dimness or partial loss is what they 
would like to get rid of. The substitution of the word cure for resto- 
ration would make the meaning of the sentence correspond to the 
meaning of the medicine-vendor. 

9. There is a confusion here between two forms of acceptance: 
(1) I shall have much pleasure in joining your party, (2) I have much 
pleasure in accepting your invitation. See p. 283, note in text to first 
example on page. 

9. • Only John attempted,' i.e. John alone, John and nobody else: 
only is here an adjective. 

'John only attempted,' i.e. he tried but failed to succeed. 

'John attempted only three,' i.e. he left the rest of the problems 
untouched. 

' Only he,' i.e. he and no one besides. 

' He only lost, ' i.e. he did nothing more than lose the child : he did 
not drown it or throw it over a precipice: perhaps after a while he 
found it. 

'He lost only his child,' i.e. (1. with stress on child) he lost nothing 
more than his child, he did not lose his wife, or his dog, or his port- 
manteau : or (2. with stress on his) he lost nobody's child except his 
own child, or the child of the person indicated by his. 

' He lost his only child,' i.e. he had but one child and this he lost. 

'He lost his child only" means the same as 'He lost only his child.' 

10. 1. Supply the missing words in each elliptical sentence to 
show its meaning: 

You punished me more severely than she punished me. 
You punished me more severely than you punished her. 

2. See note to example in text. 

3. Easier for more easily. The use of the adjectives easy, easier, 
easiest in place of the adverbs easily, more easily, most easily, is not 
common now-a-days except colloquially : e.g. Take it easy. Pope has 
'those move easiest that have learn'd to dance.' 

4. Say as I {did) : the conjunction as is preceded by a nominative 
he and must be followed by a nominative I. 

5. Say 'John never wrote a better letter than James, nor one 
as good': p. 274, § 273. 



SYNTAX, A JD VERBS, ETC. Pp. 278—284. 73 

6. Say as for which : after same and such we use «j for the relative 
pronoun: p. 276, § 276. (See however the note in Gow's Method of 
English, p. 168, Lesson XV.) 

7. Say 'He knows neither French nor German': p. 276, § 276, 
last paragraph. 

8. Say 'Neither John nor Thomas' (p. 276, § 276, last paragraph), 
and for are say is: p. 254, third paragraph. 

9. Say ' He was learned neither in the languages nor in philosophy' 
(or 'He was learned in neither the languages nor philosophy') : p. 276, 
§ 276, last paragraph. 

I like golfing better than he does. This arrangement suits you better 
than him. 

I hope they will elect your brother, than whotn they will not easily 
find a better candidate (i.e. they will not find a better candidate than 
him, object offnd). 

I return the book which you lent me and zuhich I have read with 
great interest: p. 275, § 274. 

He says that at billiards he is not quite as good as I am. 

Don't you consider yourself as good as me? 

Would that the war were over ! 

11. (a) Who is there but would lend his help? (i.e. who would 
not lend). 

(b) I shall never, no, never forget your kindness. 

(c) Love make his heart of flint that you shall love (Shakespeare, 
Twelfth Night, I. v. 305), i.e. the heart of 'him whom you shall love. 

(d) To speak my mind, I think he is a scoundrel. 

(e) See p. 239, § 244. 

12. See p. 270. 

Although I should be killed, yet will there be a good man to lead 
you. 

He was not only defeated but also disgraced. 

13. The impropriety of the expression is seen if we throw it into 
the past tense, 'I tried and went' for 'I tried to go.' 

14. 1. Remove from-, whence means from what place. 

2. Else is not required: nobody else means 'nobody besides.' Say 
' there will be nobody there but you and me. ' Else would be properly 
inserted in the sentence, 'You and I shall be there and nobody else.' 

3. Say 'The river Kishon' omitting of (see p. 237, § 241). The 
repetition of the term 'the river Kishon' is rhetorically effective, not 
pleonastic. 

4. Omit most', p. 244, § 251, 3. 



74 SYNTAX, ADVERBS, ETC. Pp. 278—284. 

5. Magnanimity means 'greatness of mind' (ultimately from Lat. 
magnus, great, animus, mind) : ' great magnanimity of mind'' therefore 
means 'great greatness of mind of mind.' 

6. Omit down : to stoop is to bend down. 

7. Say 'His motive is clear to every one.' The meaning of trans- 
parency here is 'absolute clearness' : hence to say that 'the transparency 
is clear' is to say that the clearness is clear. 

8. Redundant negative: say either (1) 'It is not and it cannot 
come to good,' or (2) 'It is not nor can it come to good.' 

9 Omit the preposition in once. 

10. Omit the words of it at the end. 

11. For it may be worth revealing the fact say the fact may be worth 
revealing, removing the redundant it. Or say it may be worth while to 
reveal the fact, where it stands as anticipatory subject to the real subject 
to reveal the fact. Observe that in the original sentence the gerund 
revealing cannot be the subject, anticipated by it, because its case is 
objective, governed by worth. 

12. Say should fox would (p. 257, § 264) : the writer does not wish 
to express determination to be a demagogue. 

The phrase 'a panacea for the remedy of all those social evils' is 
pleonastic : panacea (ultimately from Gk. irds, 7rai>-, all, a/cos, cure) 
means ' a remedy for all evils.' 

13. Redundant negative. Say and fox nor. 

14. This sentence cannot be put right by merely omitting the 
redundant which: if tvhich is removed the demonstrative adjective that 
must be changed to a. Making these alterations we get the following: 
'The king then entered on a career of misgovernment : that he was 
able to pursue it is a disgrace to our history.' Possibly the writer had 
a vague desire to state that the king entered on a disgraceful career of 
misgovernment and that he was disgracefully allowed to pursue it. If 
so he has been signally unsuccessful in exhibiting his state of mind. 

15. Treble negative: say and for nor and shall any one for none 
shall. I must be changed to me, objective after the preposition save, 
meaning 'except.' Formerly however the construction was legitimate, 
as save I, i.e. 'I being safe,' was Nominative Absolute. See p. 189, 
first three lines. 

16. Who is clearly redundant. To remove it makes the sentence 
grammatical but impairs the writer's meaning. The simplest correction 
would be to change all things would silent be to made all things silent 
be. 

17. Redundant which: say, 'except my left arm and I can hardly 
tell what is the matter with that.'' 

\ 8. Pleonastic superlative in meaning though not in form, universal 
signifying what pertains to the whole human race. 



SYNTAX, ADVERBS, ETC. Pp. 278—284. 75 

15. I correspond with him regularly. Sizars at Cambridge used 
to correspond to servitors at Oxford. 

The king confided in his ministers. The king confided the negotia- 
tions to his envoy. 

The king agreed to the prime minister's proposal. The king agreed 
with the prime minister. 

Wisdom differs from cunning. I am glad to find that you differ 
with me from the editor in this question. 

There is a wide difference between the estimates and the expenditure. 
His difference with his partner has been adjusted. 

The town was well provided tvith corn against a siege. Let us 
provide for the worst. 

He has but little regard for consistency. With regard to your 
complaint there is nothing further to be said. 

A footman waited at table on the guests. The company were kept 
waitingy^r the soup. 

16. Independent tf/help Conversant with a subject 
Different from something Conformable to rules 
Angry with a man Disapprove of severity 

,, at a thing Full of water 

Composed of mincemeat Replete with luxury 

Dissent from a statement 

Fall in, to take a position, e.g. ' Fall in on the right ' ; to lapse, 
e.g. ' The annuities fall in when the old lady dies ' ; to become hollow, 
' Her cheeks have fallen in.' 

Fall off, to diminish in number: e.g. ' Friends fall off in adversity'; 
' The subscriptions fell off.' 

Fall to, to begin vigorously: e.g. 'Here's your supper; fall to'; to 
apply oneself: e.g. ' They fell to blows.' 

Fall out, to quarrel, e.g. ' We fell out, my wife and I, and kissed 
again with tears ' ; to happen : e.g. 

'Three children sliding on the ice, 

Upon a summer's day, 
It so fell out they all fell in, 
The rest they ran away.' 
Fall under, to become subject to, e.g. 'They fell under the jurisdiction 
of the emperor.' 

Fall upon, to attack, e.g. ' The enemy fell upon them.' 

17. See note to Question in text. 

18. For (a) see pp. 231—2, § 233 (6), and § 234; (6) p. 123, § 126; 
k)P- *47> § 154; (<0P- 2 76, § 276. 

19. For (a) see p. 154, last paragraph but one; (6) p. 270 — 1; 
(') P- 137, § 141 ; (<0 Key, p. 33, Q. 29. 



76 SYNTAX, ADVERBS, ETC. Pp. 278—284. 

20. For Aryan see p. 24, last two paragraphs; runes, p. 59, § 61 ; 
hybrid, p. 203; prosody, p. 35, § 40; solecism, p. 246, footnote. 

21. 1. Say for you and ?ne, objective case after preposition for. 

2. Say but him, objective case after preposition but. 

3. Say Between my love and me, objective case after preposition 
between. 

4. Say with no more impropriety than that which we have been 
guilty of (or than that which we have shown) in placing Jones in 
the second. The comparison is made between two degrees of im- 
propriety. 

5. Say is for are: p. 254, third paragraph. 

6. Say as for with : p. 276, § 276. 

7. Say they for them : the conjunction as must be followed by the 
pronoun they in the same case as the case of the pronoun we which 
precedes it. 

8. Say I for me, as explained in the preceding example, and avoid 
the harshness of the ellipsis involved in better as I by rearranging the 
sentence thus : 'I don't believe you have abetter bicycle than I, or even 
one as good' ; p. 274, § 273. If you have got means 'you have obtained,' 
got is right: if you have got means simply 'you have,' 'you possess,' the 
use of got is a vulgarism. 

9. Say easily for easy, see Key, p. 72, Q. 10, 3. In If he don't 
get nervous the verb is subjunctive (don't, i.e. do not), expressing doubt 
on the part of the speaker (I am afraid that he may get nervous) : if he 
doesn't get nervous means ' assuming as a fact that he is free from 
nervousness I am sure he can do it easily': p. 262, note to Q. 8. 

10. Say funnily, adverb qualifying write, for funny. 

1 1. Say is for are : the subject from my shoulder to my fingers' ends 
is loosely used to denote the extent of the affected part : cf. ' From 
London to Reading is thirty-six miles,' i.e. the distance from London to 
Reading is thirty-six miles. 

12. Say ' With the same spirit as that in which (or with which) its 
author writ ' (writ archaic past tense, i.e. wrote). The author did not 
write the spirit. 

13. See Key, p. 72, Q. 8, 9. 

14. Say is for are, p. 242, § 250. For Ajax' we should now 
write Ajax's, following the pronunciation: p. 98, § 98, fourth 
paragraph. 

15. Place luckily before returned, the word which it qualifies. The 
luck consisted in the return of the dogs. 

16. Place very fortunately without effect after shot at. It was the 
failure of the bullet to hit him that was fortunate, not the failure of his 
exhortations. 



SYNTAX, AID VERBS, ETC. Pp. 278—284. 77 

17. Place very badly before wants : in its present position the 
adverbial adjunct is not flattering to the artist. 

18. Say, 'A month ago I saw in London a gentleman who had 
shot hundreds of buffaloes.' Hundreds of buffaloes are not to be found 
in London. 

19. In his desire to be concise, the writer attempts to put too 
much into one sentence and writes nonsense. If five brothers died in 
infancy, and Gibbon was one of the five, Gibbon must have died in 
infancy. Again, what is the meaning of the remark that Gibbon was 
the eldest of a sister ? The passage may be reconstructed in various 
ways : e.g. ' Gibbon had four younger brothers who died in infancy. 
A sister, also younger than himself, reached the age of childhood, living 
long enough indeed for Gibbon to remember and regret her.' 

20. Place both before to think : in its present position it requires 
some other verb, introduced by the correlative and; e.g. Adversity both 
teaches and encourages, &c. 

21. Say Books of this kind: p. 242, second paragraph. Say me 
for I, object of transitive verbs interest and gratify. Say nor for or, 
correlative of neither, p. 276, last paragraph. 

22. Army may take a singular or a plural construction (p. 253, 
§ 260, 1), but the construction must be adhered to consistently through- 
out the sentence. Say therefore (1) Us chief, its miserable march, or 
(2) their chief, their miserable march. 

23. Say its rider for their riders: p. 242, § 250. 

24. Say easier for easiest: p. 243, § 251, 1. 

25. Say Who for Whom: p. 249, last paragraph. The error is 
obvious if we substitute a demonstrative pronoun : ' Do you think I am 
heV (not him). 

26. Say has for have : the subject of have is that, and that is a 
relative pronoun referring to its antecedent man which is of the 3rd 
person. 

27. Say who touchedst or didst touch : p. 248, third paragraph. 

28. Say her room for their rooms and herself for themselves, or 
change each to all, retaining their rooms and themselves: p. 242, § 250. 

29. Say my for me: see p. 264, Q. 19 (ii), note in text, and Key, 
p. 68, Q. 37, 8. 

30. Say thou for thee: for the case following the verb to be see Key, 
p. 57, Q. 9, 1. 

31. Say Whomsoever for Whoever, object of favours. Supplying 
the ellipsis we get, ' The cardinal will find employment for anyone 
whom the king favours.' 

32. Say his for their, referring to a singular subject no one. Say 
he for him, the conjunction as requiring that the case of the pronoun 
he- which follows it should be the same as the ease of no one which 
precedes it.- : . : . .- - .. • 



78 SYNTAX, ADVERBS, ETC. Pp. 278—284. 

33. Say his for their, or change Everybody has to All have, retaining 
their: p. 242. § 250. 

34. Say as you do for like you do, where a nominative is required 
for the subject to the verb do: p. 246, first paragraph. He talks like 
Charles is legitimate, like Charles being an adverbial adjunct qualifying 
talks. 

35. Say exist for exists : the antecedent of the subject that is works, 
not one : p. 248, seventh paragraph. 

36. Say beg for begged, infinitive dependent on did, i.e. did he not 
beg? There is anacoluthon here, i.e. the blending of two constructions: 
viz. ' Did he beg ? ' and ' Begged he ? ' 

37. Say warmer for warmest: p. 243, § 251, 1. 

38. Retaining may, we must change past subj. gave to pres. subj. 
give, or changing may to might we retain gave, following the law of 
sequence of tenses: p. 257, § 265. Say they for them : the conjunction 
as is preceded by the pronouns you and / in the nominative case and 
must be followed by a pronoun in the nominative case, they. 

39. 40, 41. All these expressions are wrong. Suppose that the 
Liberal newspapers are five in number. Let us call them A, B, C, 
D, E. Of these A has the largest circulation. We may express this 
fact grammatically by saying — 

( r) A has the largest circulation of all Liberal newspapers : 

(2) A has a larger circulation than any other Liberal newspaper. 

The form of expression in 39 is wrong because any is here distri- 
butive and singular. Any newspaper is one newspaper. Newspaper A 
cannot have the largest circulation of one paper: of is partitive and 
implies plurality. A boy can be the tallest boy of his class, but he 
cannot be the tallest boy of any boy in his class. 

The form of expression in 40 contains this error in a slightly different 
form. If we cannot say that A has the largest circulation of one 
paper, still less can we say that A has the largest circulation of B or of 
C or ofD. 

The form of expression in 41 is wrong because any includes A : any 
means A, or B, or C, or D, or E. Now A cannot have a larger 
circulation than its own circulation. 

22. See note in text. 

23. No one venerates the peerage more than I do. But, my lords, 
I must say that the peerage solicited me, not I the peerage. Nay 
more, I can say, and will say, that as a peer of parliament, as speaker 
of this right honourable house, as keeper of the great seal, as guardian 
of His Majesty's conscience, as Lord High Chancellor of England, 
nay, even in that character alone in which the noble duke would think 
it an affront to be considered, as a man, I am at this moment as 



SYNTAX, ADVERBS, ETC. Pp. 278—284. 79 

respectable, — I beg leave to add, I am at this moment as much re- 
spected, — as the proudest peer I now look down upon. 



NOTES ON PASSAGES FOR ANALYSIS. P. 291. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



Absol. 


Absolute 


In fin. 


Infinitive 


a., aSs 


Adjunct, Adjuncts 


Interj. 


Interjection 


Adjl. 


Adjectival 


Inlerrog. 


Interrogative 


Advl. 


Adverbial 


Obj. 


Object 


Anteced. 


Antecedent 


Phr. 


Phrase 


Appos. 


Apposition 


Fred. 


Predicate 


Apposl. 


Appositional 


Predn. 


Predication 


CI. 


Clause 


Prin. 


Principal 


Cogn. 


Cognate 


Prov. 


Provisional 


Compl. 


Complement 


Ret. Obj. 


Retained object 


Coord. 


Coordinate 


Sub;'. 


Subject 


Dir. Obj. 


Direct Object 


Subjve. 


Subjective 


Enl. 


Enlargement 


Subord. 


Subordinate 


Incompl. 


Incomplete 


Voc. 


Vocative 


Ind. Obj. 


Indirect Object 







1. 1. The parts of an Interrogative Sentence have the same 
relations as those of the answer: 'Who is this?' 'This is he.' 

Subj. ' This,' p red. 'is who' {Verb of incompl. predn. 'is,' subjve. 
compl. 'who'). 

2. 'Why are you so late?' 'I am so late for this reason.' Subjve. 
Compl. of'zxe.J 'late': advl. a. ofpred. 'why.' 

3. Supply Subj. 'you': Ind. Obj. 'me.' 

4. Advl. a. ofpred. 'to bliss domestic' 

5. Subj. 'a battle,' pred. 'is said to have been,' adv. a. of compl. 
ofpred. 'to have been,' 'there.' 

6. Contracted Sentence containing two coord, clauses: (t) 'He 
will succeed,' (2) 'He will die.' 

7. Simple. Advl. a. ofpred. 'o'er the village green.' 

8. Subj. 'you,' pred. 'let,' obj. 'me stay' (complex obj. consisting 
of pronoun and implied pred., 'that 1 should stay'). 

9. Incompl. pred. 'was taken,' subjective compl. of pred. 'prisoner.' 
Absol. Phr. Advl. a. of pred. 'his horse being killed.' 

10. Omit 'O flowers.' Subjve. compl. of 'are,' 'living preachers.' 

2. r. Complex. Prin. CI. 'I shall go my way,' advl. aJs of 
pred. (1) 'my way,' (2) Advl. CI. 'whatever the consequences may be,' 
Subve. compl. <7/"'may be,' 'whatever.' 



80 PASSAGES FOR ANALYSIS, Pp. 291—298. 

2. Complex. Advl. a. of pred. 'lies,' or Adjl. a. of subj. 'bead,' 
'uneasy': Adjl. CI. limiting 'head,' 'that wears a crown.' 

3. Simple. Subj. 'allegorist.' Pred. 'has been able to make 
objects of terror, of pity, and of love,' obj. 'abstractions.' The complex 
pred. may be broken up thus: incompl. pred. 'has been able.' 

Com-bl \ I n fi n - °f V er b of incompl. predn. 'to make,' 
( Compl. of this infin. 'objects of terror, &c.' 

4. We may treat this simple sentence in either of the following 
ways : 

(1) 'None not-brave deserves the fair.' 

(2) ' None deserves the fair, the brave being excepted.'' 
In (1) not-brave is an Adjl. a. of Subj. 'none.' 

In (2) the brave being excepted is an Advl. Phr. a. of pred. 'deserves.' 

5. Complex. Supply the ellipsis. 'This is made of the same 
material as (i.e. which) that is made of.' Advl. a. of pred. 'is made' in 
Prin. CI. 'of the same material as that is made of.' Subord. Adjl. 
CI. 'as that is made of: subj. 'that,' pred. 'is made,' advl. a. of pred. 
' of which. ' 

3. 1. Complex. Prin. CI. 'Who will undertake it?' Advl. CI. 
a. of pred. 'if it be not also a service of honour.' Subj. 'it,' incompl. 
pred. 'be,' subjve. compl. 'a service of honour,' advl. a?s of pred. 'not,' 
'also.' 

2. Compound. 

3. Complex. Prov. Subj. of Prin. CI. 'It,' real subj. 'that he said 
that,' incompl. pred. 'is,' compl. 'true,' advl. a. 'not.' Subord. Noun 
CI. ' He said that.' 

4. Simple. 'Plain living and high thinking' may be regarded as 
forming a compound subject. 

5. Simple. Subj. 'I,' incompl. pred. 'shall join,' compl. 'in paying 
tribute,' advl. a. of pred. 'with my country,' advl. a. of compl. 'to the 
great virtues of that gentleman.' 

4. A Complex and a Simple Sentence. ' Gf all (that) I survey,' 
Adjl. a. of 'monarch,' subjve. compl. of 'am.' Adjl. CI. limiting 'all,' 
' That I survey' (obj. 'that'). 

Simple Sentence. Subj. 'none,' incompl. pred. 'is,' compl. 'to 
dispute' (gerundial infin.), obj. of compl. 'my right,' advl. a. of pred. 
'there.' 

5. Complex. Prin. CI. 'The sound was sweet,' Subj. 'sound,' 
incompl. pred. 'was,' compl. ' sweet, ' Advl. CI. a. of pred. 'when... rose.' 

6. Compound, the second clause being Complex. In (1) pred. 
'bade' takes dir. obj. 'farewell' and indir. obj. 'the world.' In (2) 'as 
Kosciusko fell' is an Advl. CI. a. of pred. 'shrieked' in Prin. CL 



PASSAGES FOR ANALYSIS, Pp. 291— 298. 81 

7. Compound, the first clause being Complex. In the Prin. CI. 
of (1) 'his fill ' is Advl. a. of pred. 'had drunk.' The Subord. CI 'where 
...rill ' is an Advl. a. of pred. 

8. Complex: also Compound if we separate the principal predi- 
cates, 'He may sit,' 'He may enjoy.' These may however be taken 
jointly as forming a compound predicate, 'sit-and-enjoy.' Subord. Adjl. 
CI. 'that has light... breast, ' limiting sitbj . 'he.' 

9. Complex. The Subord. Clauses are adjl. 'that blows,' limiting 
'flower,' 'that do often lie too deep for tears,' limiting 'thoughts.' 'Too 
deep for tears,' subjve. compl. of pred. 'lie.' 

10. A Compound and a Simple Sentence. Supply pred. ' do make ' 
in second line, i.e. 'Iron bars do not make a cage.' 'Prison' and 
' cage ' are objects. In the Simple Sentence, ' for a hermitage ' is advl. 
a. of pred. 

11. Simple. Adjl. Phrases, a.'s of subj. ' by merit raised to that 
bad eminence,' 'exalted,' 'high on a throne of royal state.' 

12. Two Compound Sentences. Supply in the second line 'beheld 
them' and in the fourth 'brought.' 

13. (1) Simple: 'with us,' compl. of incompl. pred. 'is'; 'too much,' 
advl. a. of compl. 

(2) Simple: 'getting and spending,' adjl. a.'s of subj. 'we,' pred. 
'lay waste.' 

(3) Complex: 'that is ours,' Adjl. CI. limiting 'little.' 

(4) Simple: 'a sordid boon,' apposl. a. ofobj. 'hearts.' 

14. Simple. 'This vesper-service closed,' Absol. Phr., advl. a. of 
pred. 'pursued.' 

15. A Simple and a Compound Sentence. In the latter 'to blush 
unseen' is Advl. a. of pred. 'is born.' Supply 'is born' in the last line, 
where '(to) waste' stands in the same relation as 'to blush.' 

16. A Simple and a Complex Sentence. The latter contains an 
Adjl. CI. 'that dries his feathers,' limiting 'lark,' and an Advl. CI. 
'while yet. ..nest,' a. of pred. of Adjl. CI. 'dries.' 

17. A Compound and a Complex Sentence. The first couplet 
contains a Compound Sentence, (1) 'my lord found me,' (2) my 'lord 
loved me.' Adjl. a.'s of obj. 'me,' 'in this poor gown,' 'serving in my 
father's hall.' The last three lines contain a Complex Sentence with 
Compound Subordinate Clauses. Prin. CI. 'I will not cast aside this 
poor gown,' Advl. Clauses a.'s of pred. (1) 'until he arise,' (2) 'until he 
bid me cast it.' 'A living man' is apposl. enl. of subj. 'himself; 
'me,' indir. obj.\ 'to cast it,' advl. a. of 'bid.' 

W. E. G. K. 6 



82 PASSAGES FOR ANALYSIS, Pp. 291—298. 

18. Compound: the second sentence is Complex. Adjl. Phr. a. 
of subj. 'by great men reached and kept' {reached and kept are participles, 
not finite verbs). In the last couplet 'while their companions slept ' is 
Advl. CI. a. of pred. 'were toiling.' 

19. Compound: the second sentence is Complex. Prin. CI. of 
second sentence ' Csesar fell.' 'Even at the base of Pompey's statue,' 
Advl. Phr. a. of pred. 'Which all the while ran blood,' Adjl. CI. a. of 
' statue' : subj. ' which,' pred. ' ran,' cogn. obj. 'blood,' advl. a. of pred. 
'all the while.' 

20. Complex. Prin. CI. 'He is born and taught how happy': 
' born and taught ' may be taken jointly as forming a compound compl. 
of incompl. pred. 'is.' The three subord. clauses which follow are 
Adjl. a.'s of subj. 'he.' 

21. Complex. Prin. CI. 'Statesmen met at her council'; Adjl. 
CI. a. of 'statesmen,' 'Who knew the seasons when to take... and 
(when to) make... wider yet.' We may regard the phrases 'when to 
take... hand' and 'when to make... wider yet' as Adjl. a.'s of obj. 
' seasons ' or as Noun Phrases in Appos. with ' seasons.' 

22. Complex. Prin. CI., subj. 'They' pred. 'knew' [obj. 'the 
imprisoned... difficulty,' a Noun 6V.], advl. a. of pred. 'When the 
men' [Adjl. CI. a. of ' men,' ' who were exploring the pit '] ' ascertained' 
[obj., Noun CI., ' the water had reached a certain level ']. 

23. Compound and Complex. (1) 'The moon takes up the tale,' 
(2) 'the moon repeats the story,' advl. a. ofpreds. ('takes up,' 'repeats'), 
' Soon as the evening shades prevail.' ' Whilst ' introduces a Com- 
pound and Complex Sentence, containing additional Advl. a.'s of pred. 
in (1) and (2) viz., 

' all the stars ' M ' confirm the tidings ' 

' all the planets ' j \ ' spread the truth,' 
with Adjl. CI. a. of 'stars,' 'that round her burn,' and Advl. CI. a. of 
* confirm,' ' as they roll.' 

24. Compound Sentence containing three Simple Sentences. 
(1) Subj. 'he,' pred. 'saw the hills grow larger': this complex pred. 
can be resolved thus: pred. verb, 'saw,' obj. {noun with indir. pred. 
'hills grow larger,' i.e. 'he saw that the hills grew larger'). (2) Supply 
'he,' pred 'beheld the stars come out,' resolved as above: pred. verb, 
'beheld,' obj. {noun with indir. pred. 'stars come out,' i.e. 'that the 
stars came out'). (3) Supply 'he.' 'With no one near' may be regarded 
as Adjl. a. of 'he,' equivalent to 'solitary,' or as Advl. a. of 'travelled,' 
equivalent to 'in a solitary manner.' 

25. Complex. Prin. CI. Supply subj. ' you.' Advl. CI. a. of pred. 
'intermit,' 'While I seek deliverance.' 



PASSAGES FOR ANALYSIS, Pp. 291—298. 83 

26. Simple Sentence, outlined thus : subj. ' the Grecian,' pred. 
'could find,' obj. 'place.' 

27. Compound Sentence, containing eleven collateral clauses. In 
a detailed analysis the eight coordinate sentences comprised in the 
words 'but not to me... face divine ' would easily be shown by writing 
their subjects in a column and bracketing them. 'From the cheerful 
ways of men cut off' is an Adjl. a. u/'me.' 

28. Complex. Prin. Cl. ' The man breathes there with soul so 
dead.' If 'Who never to himself hath said, &c.' is an adjunct of 'man,' 
it is an Adjl. Cl. If it means ' That he never to himself, &c.,' it is an 
Advl. CI. Thus, subj. 'The man,' incompl. pred. 'breathes' {i.e. 'is'), 
compl. 'with dead soul' {i.e. 'soulless'), Advl. a.'s of compl. (i) 'so,' 
(2) Advl. CI. ' That he never hath said, &c.' ' This is my own... land ' 
is Noun CI. obj. of ' said.' Treat subord. cl. ' Whose heart... strand' in 
the same manner as subord. clause 'Who never... said ' was treated, 
either as Adjl. a. of 'man,' or, if equivalent to 'that his heart hath ne'er 
burned, &c.,' Advl. a. of compl. 'with dead soul.' The contained subord. 
cl. 'As home. ..he hath turned, &c.,' is Advl. a. 0/" 'burned.' 

29. Compound and Complex. Pred. of first sentence, ' is made 
summer,' which may be resolved thus: incompl. pred. 'is made,' 
compl. ' summer. ' In second sentence supply ' are ' to form pred. 
'are buried.' Adjl. Cl. limiting 'clouds,' 'that lour'd upon our 
house. ' 

30. Complex. Prin. Cl. outlined : ' Thou mayst behold that 
time': Adjl. Cl. a. of obj. 'time,' 'W T hen {i.e. at which) yellow leaves... 
birds sang,' containing subord. Adjl. Cl. a. of ' boughs,' ' Which shake 
against... birds sang,' containing Adjl. Cl. a. of 'choirs,' 'Where {i.e. in 
which) late the sweet birds sang.' 

31. Two Complex Sentences. (1) Prin. Cl. 'They consume the 
thing' {Adjl. Cl. a. of obj. 'thing'), 'that feeds their fury' {Advl. Cl. a. of 
pred. 'do consume') 'where two raging fires meet together.' (2) Prin. 
Cl. ' Extreme gusts will blow out fire-and-all ' {Advl. Cl. a. of pred. 
' will blow out ') ' though little fire grows great with little wind.' In 
analysing the Advl. Cl. of (1), insert ' where ' as Advl. a. of pred. 'meet 
together.' In analysing the Advl. Cl. of (2), omit the conjunction 
' though ' : ' great ' is compl. of incompl. pred. ' grows. ' 

32. Compound and Complex. Prin. Clauses outlined: (i) 'He 
would stretch his length,' (2) ' He would pore upon the brook ' {Adjl. 
Cl. a. of' brook ') 'that babbles by.' The Adjl. Cl. 'That wreathes its 
roots so high ' is a. of 'beech ' in Advl. Phr. a. of pred. ' would stretch.' 
'High' may be taken as compl. of pred. 'wreathes,' i.e. 'wreathes them 
so that they become high,' or as Adjl. a. of 'roots,' i.e. 'wreathes the roots 
which were already high as well as old and fantastic' 

6—2 



84 PASSAGES FOR ANALYSIS, Pp. 291—298. 

33. Complex. The Prin. Cl. occurs in the last couplet, 'We turn 
to catch one fading ray of joy' {Adjl. CI. a. of' joy') 'that is left behind 
us.' Advl. CI. a. of pred. 'turn,' 'When the close of pleasure's day has 
nearly consigned us to gloom ': Advl. a. of pred. 'turn,' 'so': Advl. CI. 
a. of pred. 'turn,' 'As travellers look back to gaze upon the light' 
{Adjl. CI. a. of 'light ') 'which they leave.' 'To gaze... glowing ' and 
'To catch... behind us' are Advl. aJ's of their respective predicates, look 
back' and 'turn.' 'When eastward darkly going' is a Participial Phr., 
a. ^/"'travellers,' not a CI., as it contains no finite verb. 

34. Compound and Complex. (1) 'A sound came ' {Advl. CI. a. 
of 'came') 'whilst Wolfram hung o'er the dying bard.' (2) ' He was 
ware of... maidens, moving in the van of... monks' {Adjl. CI. a. of 
'monks') 'who bore the corpse.' 

35. Complex. Outline : Prin. CI. ' An emperor decreed ' \pbj. 
Noun CI. (1) 'that he should wear half a coat,' (2) 'that he should 
show his bosom bare']. Adjl. CI. a. of 'he,' suppressed anteced. of 
Noun CI., 'whosoever should offend... friend.' 

36. Contains Simple, Compound and Complex Sentences. Advl. 
CI. a. of pred. 'stopt,' 'as he hunted the bee.' Compound, 'The hawk 
stood,' 'The hawk stared,' 'The nightingale thought, &c.' The passage 
in quotation marks, 'I have sung... died away' is a Compound and 
Complex Noun CI. op/, of' thought.' 'Many songs,' cogn. obj 3/* 'have 
sung.' In next line supply ' I have sung' : 'never a one so gay,' cogn. 
obj. The last couplet is a Complex subord. advl. cl. a.of'I have never 
sung so gay a song,' introduced by 'for,' i.e. 'because,' the Advl. Cl. 
relating to Cause. ' Of what the world will be when the years have 
died away' is a Complex Advl. Cl. a. of 'sings.' Subj. 'world,' 
incompl. pred. ' will be, ' subjve. compl. of pred. ' what ' ; Advl. Cl. a. of 
pred. 'will be what,' 'When the years have died away.' 

37. Omit the first two lines, containing nouns in vocat. case. To 
these nouns in appos. the compound subord. cl. in the next couplet 
forms an Adjl. a. introduced by relat. pron. 'whose.' The last four 
lines contain a Compound Sentence, (1) 'The proud are taught, &c,' 
(2) 'Tyrants groan.' In (1) 'Bound in thy adamantine chain' is a 
Participial Phr., Adjl. a. of 'The proud'; 'to taste,' ret. obj. after 
pass, verb 'are taught' (see pp. 144, 238); 'of pain,' advl. a. of 'to 
taste.' 

38. Two Complex and Compound Sentences (unless we take 
'trees and mountain-tops,' 'plants and flowers,' 'sun and showers' 
as compound objects or compound subjects). (1) Stibj. 'Orpheus,' 
pred. 'made-bow,' obj. 'trees and mountain-tops.' ('Made' incompl. 
pred. 'bow themselves,' compl.) Adjl. Cl. a. of 'mountain-tops,' 'that 
freeze.' (2) Subj. 'plants and flowers,' pred. 'sprung,' Advl. a.'s of pred. 



PASSAGES FOR ANALYSIS, Pp. 291—298. 85 

' to his music,' ' ever,' and the Advl. CI. ' as (if) sun and showers had 
made there a lasting spring': 'made' is here a verb of compl. predn. 
with obj. ' spring.' 

39. The first stanza contains two Complex Sentences. Adjl. CI. 
limiting obj. 'place,' 'Where {i.e. 'in which') we gazed upon the 
sky first.' Adjl. CI. limiting subj. 'roofs,' 'that heard our earliest 
cry.' 

The second stanza contains a Compound Sentence, the first clause 
of which is Simple, 'We go'; the second is Complex, with two advl. 
clauses, outlined thus : Prin. CI. ' Two spirits contend,' Advl. CI. 
(1) ' ere we go,' (2) ' as I move.' 

40. The Prin. CI. appears in the fifth line : ' Woe (be) to the 
purblind crew.' Advl. a. of pred. 'be,' 'to the purblind crew,' followed 
by two Adjl. Clauses, a.'s of 'crew,' viz. (i) 'Who fill, &c.,' (2) ' Who 
gain not skill, &c.' The first four lines contain three Advl. Clauses, a.'s 
of prin. pred. (1) 'If the world revolve in one track,' (2) 'If freedom 
will rise again,' (3) 'If virtue will come back.' 

41. A Compound and Complex Sentence. Prin. Clauses (1) 'Spirits 
have conversed with man'; (2) 'Spirits have told secrets,' the first two' 
lines containing advl. aSs of the pred. in each Prin. CI. viz. ' in such 
a place,' 'at such an hour,' and the Advl. CI. ' If ancestry can be believed 
in aught.' 'In aught,' advl. a. of pred. 'can be believed.' 

42. Complex. Prin. CI. 'Those do not observe that, &c.' (A T oun 
CI. obj. of ' do observe '). Adjl. CI. a. of ' those,' ' Who reason in this 
manner.' A r oun CI. 'They are setting up a rule.' With obj. ' rule ' we . 
have a Noun CI. in appos. ' Secrecy will justify [Advl. CI. a. of pred. 
'whenever secrecy is practicable '] any action.' 

43. Contains a Simple and a Complex Sentence. Simple Sentence, 
Subj. 'thou,' incompl. pred. 'be,' compl. ' true,' advl. a. of compl. 'to 
thine own self.' ('And,' i.e. 'On this condition,' 'This being the case,' 
advl. a. of pred. 'must follow.') Prov. subj. 'It': real subj. Noun CI. 
' That thou canst not then be false to any man,' pred. ' must follow,' 
Advl. CI. a. of pred. ' as the night follows the day.' 

44. Complex. Subj. 'Being (i.e. To be) angry... value ' incompl. 
pred. 'is' compl. 'a necessary consequence... you feel.' Adjl. CI. a. of 
1 one,' ' Who controverts an opinion ' [Adjl. CI. ' which (obj.) you value 'J. 
Adjl. CI. a. of 'uneasiness,' 'which (obj.) you feel.' 

45. Contains Simple and Compound Sentences, the last of which 
has subordinate clauses. In the third sentence supply subj. and pred. 
'He puts forth blossoms to-morrow.' 'The third day' is Advl. a. of 

pred. 'comes.' The last four lines contain a Compound Sentence: 
(1) ' A frost comes,' (2) ' A frost nips his root,' (3) ' He falls.' Clauses 



86 PASSAGES FOR ANALYSIS, Pp. 291—298. 

(2) and (3) are Complex. (2) Prin. Cl. 'A frost nips his root,' AdvL 
CL a. 0/"'mps ' ['when he thinks,' Noun CI. obj. ' his greatness is surely 
a-ripening ']. (3) Prin. CI. ' He falls,' Advl. CI. a. of pred. ' as I do.' 

46. A Simple and a Compound Sentence. Simple: 'The Niger 
flowed through the landscape.' Compound: 'He strode beneath the 
trees,' 'He heard the caravans descend.' 'A king,' enl. of subj. 'he' 
by noun in appos. The obj. of 'heard' is 'the caravans descend,' noun 
with implied pred. (the caravans were descending). 

47. Contains three Complex Sentences. 1. 'What breast-plate is 
stronger (AdvL CI. a. of compl. 'stronger') than an untainted heart is 
strong?' Omit conj. 'than' from analysis of subord. cl. 2. 'That 
hath his quarrel just,' Adjl. CL limiting 'he.' 3. 'Whose conscience is 
corrupted with injustice,' Adjl. Cl. limiting -he.' In Prin. CL supply 
' is ' : ' though locked up in steel ' is Adjl. Phr. a. of 'he.' 

48. Two Simple Sentences in first three lines. The last five lines 
contain a Compound and Complex Sentence. The first line, 'Deaf... 
prayers,' is an Adjl. Phr. a. of subj. 'They.' We may regard the 
sentence in the third line as Simple in spite of the following 'and,' 
though there is of course no objection to making it a clause collateral 
with ' His heart failed.' The last sentence has for its Prin. Cl. ' His 
heart failed,' AdvL Clauses a.'s of pred. (1) 'as they opened the door,'. 

(2) ' for (i.e. because) he heard (r) the laughter, (2) the chamber roar and 
ring with plaudits of " Long live the King." ' ' Long live the King ' is 
a Noun CL, apposl. enl. of 'plaudits ' ('of being used appositionally 
here) : subj. ' the King,' pred. ' live ' (subjunctive mood), advl. a. of 
pred. ' long.' 

49. A Complex Sentence followed by a Compound Sentence. 
Prin. Cl. 'He seized his harp,' Adv. Cl. a. of pred. 'when the sun was 
sinking in the sea' (advl. a.'s of pred. 'when,' 'in the sea'), Adjl. 
Clauses a.'s of obj. 'harp,' (1) 'which he could string,' (2) 'which he 
could strike,' Advl. Cl. a. of pred. 'could strike ' ['when he deemed' 
(Noun Cl. obj. of 'deemed') 'no strange ear was listening']. 'Albeit 
with untaught melody' Advl. Phr. a. of 'could strike.' Compound 
Sentence: (1) 'He did fling his fingers over it'; (2) 'He tuned his 
farewell.' 

50. A Compound Sentence containing three collateral clauses, the 
last of which is Complex, (1) ' They heard ' : (2) ' They were abashed': 

(3) 'They sprung up,' Advl. Cl. a. of pred. 'sprung,' 'as when men 
rouse-and-bestir (cotnpound pred.) themselves.' The Phrases 'wont to 
watch,' ' sleeping found by whom they dread,' are Adjl. a.'s of 'men.' 
' Whom (obj.) they (subj.) dread' (pred.) is an Adjl. Cl. limiting 'those,' 
unexpressed anteced. of 'whom.' The Phrase 'ere well awake' is an 
AdvL Phr. a. of pred. ' rouse-and-bestir.' 



PASSAGES FOR ANALYSIS, Pp. 291—298. 87 

51. Contains two Compound Sentences and a Complex Sentence. 

A. 1. ' He cheered his spouse.' 2. 'She was cheered'.' 

B. 1. ' (She) let fall a tear.' 2. ' (She) wiped them with her hair.' 

C. ' He kissed two drops ' (Ad/7. CI. a. of ' drops ') ' that stood 
ready' (subj. 'that,' incompl. pred. 'stood,' subjve. compl. 'ready'); 
Advl. CI. a. of pred. 'kissed,' 'ere they fell'; also (supplying 'they 
were' after 'as,' i.e. 'as if they were,' to complete what is wanting in 
the elliptical construction) 'as they were the gracious signs of sweet 
remorse and pious awe,' an Advl. CI. giving the reason why he kissed 
the tears ('were' in 'they were' thus supplied is in the subjunctive 
mood). Adjl. CI. a.of i remorse ' and 'awe,' subj. ' That, ' pred. 'feared,' 
obj. 'to have offended.' 

52. Compound and Complex. 

Prin. Clauses. Subord. Clauses. 

A. ' Shame had struck me dumb '\ (1. hadst thou shook thy head 

B. 'Shame had made me break' 2. hadst thou made a pause 

off' j- j 

C. 'Thy fears had wrought my 3. hadst thou turned an eye of 

fears ' ' ^ doubt 

Advl. CI. a. of preds. in 1 and 2, 'When I spake (Noun CI. obj. of 1 spake') 
what I purposed' ('what' obj. of 'purposed'). Adjl. CI. a. of 'eye' 
in 3. 'As (i.e. 'Which') bid (i.e. 'would bid') me tell my tale in 
express words.' (' Hadst ' in the first line and ' had ' in the fifth are 
past subjunctive, expressing respectively unfulfilled Condition and Con- 
sequence.) 

53. Complex. Prin. CI. ' The battle hung in even scale long,' 
Advl. Clauses a.'s of pred. 'hung,' 'till Satan (1) saw where the sword 
of Michael smote,' (2) 'felled squadrons at once.' Adjl. Clauses, aSs of 
subj. ' Satan,' (3) 'who had shown power,' (4) 'who had met no equal.' 

' Ranging... confused' is an Adjl. Phr. a. of 1 Satan.' In (1) the obj. of 
'saw ' is the Noun CI. 'where the sword of Michael smote.' The Advl. 
Clauses (1) and (2) are collateral, as are also the Adjl. Clauses (3) and 
(4). The entire passage might therefore be described as Complex with 
Compound Subordinate Clauses. 

54. Complex. Prin. CI. ' They travelled long,' Advl. CI. a. of 
pred. 'travelled,' 'till they came,' Advl. Clauses a.'s of pred. 'came,' 
(1) 'where two trees grew,' (2) 'where their leaves made a shadow.' 
Adjl. CI. a. of ' trees,' 'that did spread their arms abroad.' The Phr. 
'with gray moss overcast' may be an Adjl. a. of 'trees' or of 'arms.' 
It would be quite legitimate to take 'And their' in the fifth line as 
equivalent to ' Whose,' in which case ' Whose leaves make a shadow ' 
will be another Adjl. CI. a. of 1 trees.' 



88 PASSAGES FOR ANALYSIS, Pp. 291—298. 

55. Complex and Compound. Prin. Clauses, 

. . fi. disdain limits of their reign,' 

A. home adventurers 1 , , , • , 

{2. dare descry unknown regions. 

(3. look behind,' 
4. hear a voice in every wind,' 
5. snatch a fearful joy.' 
The predicates in Clauses (1) and (2) of Compound Sentence (A) are 
modified by the introductory Advl. CI. 'while some ply their labours 
against {i.e. so as to be prepared for) graver hours (Ad/7. CI. a. of 
'hours') that bring constraint to sweeten liberty' ('to sweeten liberty,' 
advl. a. of ' ' bring '). 

The predicates in Clauses (3) to (5) of Compound Sentence (B) are 
modified by the Advl. CI. 'as they run.' 

56. Complex containing subordinate Compound Clauses. Prin. 
CI. 'A man must judge for himself,' Advl. Clauses a.'s of pred. 'must 
judge,' (1) 'though a scholar must have faith in his master,' (2) stating 
cause why a man must judge for himself : introduced by ' for ' (i.e. be- 
cause), — 

/ 1. temporary belief,' 

. . 2. suspension of judgment, ' 

learners owe their masters -I . , , , • . • 5 

] 3. not absolute resignation, 

(4. not perpetual captivity.' 

In the second of these four collateral subord. clauses, the pred. ' owe' 

is modified by Advl. CI. ' till they are fully instructed.' 

57. Complex and Compound. Prin. CI. (1) 'Fame is the spur 
(Ad/7. CI. limiting 'spur') that doth raise the clear spirit,' advl. phr. a. 
of 'raise,' 'To scorn delights... days.' 'That last infirmity of noble 
mind' is apposl. enl. of subj. 'Fame.' Prin. CI. (2) 'The blind Fury 
comes,' Prin. CI. (3) 'The blind Fury slits the life,' Advl. Clauses 
modifying pred. in (2) and (3), i. 'when we hope to find the guerdon,' 
ii. ' when we think to burst out into blaze.' In (i) ' to find the guerdon' 
is the obj. of ' hope.' 

58. Complex. Prov. subj. ' It,' real subj. ' for men to carry about 
them such things (Ad/7. CI. limiting ' things ') as {i.e. which) are neces- 
sary to express the business they are to discourse on ' ; Ad/7. CI. limiting 
1 business,' supplying unexpressed relative, ' that they are to discourse on 
(i.e. 'they,' subj. 'are,' incompl. pred. 'to discourse,' gerundial infin. 

forming compl., 'on that,' advl. a. of comp.'of pred.); pred. of Prin. CI. 
'would be more convenient,' Advl. CI. stating reason, a. of pred. of Prin. 
CL 'since words are only names for things.' Omit conj. 'since' from 
analysis of the subord. advl. cl. 



PASSAGES FOR ANALYSIS, Pp. 291—298. 89 

59. Two separate Complex Sentences. 

A. ' Those are blessed ' (Adjl. Cl. limiting ' those ') ' whose blood 
and judgment are commingled {Advl. a. of pred.) so well {and Advl. CI.) 
that they are not a pipe for fortune's finger to sound that stop {Adj. CI. 
limiting 'stop') which she please.' (Or, Noun CI. obj. of 'sound,' 
'What stop she please.') In the Advl. CI. 'for fortune's finger to 
sound, &c.' is an Adjl. a. of 'pipe' which is compl. of incompl. pred. 
'are.' ' Which she please,' i.e. 'Which she may please to sound.' Subj. 
' she,' pred. 'may please,' advl. a. of pred. 'to sound which.' 

B. The clause 'Give me that man that is not passion's slave' has 
the appearance of being a prin. cl. but it has really the force of a subord. 
cl. expressing hypothesis or condition and modifying the prin. pred. 
' I will wear him.' 'Give me that man' is equivalent here to ' If you give 
me that man.' The sentence maybe analysed in outline thus : Prin. Cl. 
'1 will wear him in my heart's core' {Advl. Clauses a?s of pred. 'will 
wear'), 1, 'as I do thee,' 2, 'if thou give me that man' {Adjl. Cl. a. of 
'man') 'that is not passion's slave.' 

60. Complex. A Simple and a Complex Sentence. (A) Simple : 
Prov. subj. 'It,' real subj. 'To wade far into the doings of the Most 
High,' incompl. pred. 'were,' compl. 'dangerous.' 

(B) Complex: Prin. Cl. 'Our soundest knowledge is to know 
{collateral Noun Clauses, objects of 'to know') 1, that we know Him 
not, 2, that we cannot know Him {Advl. Cl. applying to pred. in both 
Noun clauses) 'as He is.' Collateral Advl. Clauses expressing con- 
cession and modifying the pred. 'is to know' in Prin. Cl. i. 'although to 
know Him be life,' ii. 'although to make mention of His name be joy.' 
In dealing with the concessive clauses separately omit the conj. 'though.' 
The infinitives 'to know,' 'to make mention' are subjects: 'be 1 is the 
subjunctive present. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR 
BEGINNERS. 



92 SOUNDS, P. 7. ALPHABET, P. 11. 



%* The references are to pages and sections of the English Grammar 
for Beginners. 

CHAPTER II. P. 7. 

1. True diphthongs occur in noise, new, now, found, eye. The 
vowel sounds of pain and yeo (in yeoman) are also diphthongal in standard 
modern English: see remarks on fate and foe, p. 6, § 7. 

2. Pure vowel : pzll, sz't; cat, pz*rr. Diphthong: p/le, s/te; acute, 
pwre. 

3. Flaw (fawn), clerk (father), sew (fomian), st^ra (fur), flood (putty), 
pfaz'd (pot), bKiy (prt), pretty (pz'ti, what (-pot), fruit (fool), wolf(pwt), 
love (p«tty), chief (fa<rt), kopard (p^t), women (pit), door (fo<?man), shoe 
(fool), could (put), broad (fawn), day (fatal), guard (father), guarantee 
(pan, marme (fet)i busy (pit), carriage (pat, pit), soul (feman), 
manoeuvre (fool), learn (fur), does (pwtty), aunt (father), haunt (fawn), 
journal (fur), tow (focTnan), prove (fool), fete (fatal). 

4. A single sign for sh in Moot, diMevelled; for th in Mick, 
Wording; for ng in ringing (twice), 3Jigi-g)er. 

CHAPTER III. P. 11. 

1. See p. 9, § 11 : x in expect and box, j in just, q in quires. 

2. (a) Sonant th in this, that, rather, booM, soothe : surd th in 
thick, z7zank, zi//zer, both, sooth. 

(b) Lamb. lim£, climo, tomb, thum^, bdellium. — Cou/d, wou/d, 
shou/d, fo/k. wa/k, ca/m, ca/f. — Sigh, weigh, plough, though, throuj'^, 
caught, thou^t. might, Hu^. — ^now, -£nave, inee, >£night, £nock, 
£nife. 

3. See Key, p. 12, Q. 6, in which all these words are explained 
except could and sovereign. The / has been wrongly inserted in could 
owing to a falsely supposed analogy to would and should where it 
rightly belongs. In Old Eng. the / was absent from the word. We 
still retain the original form very slightly changed in un-couth. Sovereign 
is properly sovran. The word may have acquired its present spelling 
because people thought that it was connected with reign. 

4. Philosophy ', phosphorus, photograph, /^antom, phrase. 
Laugh, cough, rough, enough, drau^/zt. 

~Sation, por/z'on, lotion, suc/z'on, option: mansion, pension, percus- 
sion, pasjion, expulsion. 

Cat, coke, call, cut, cool: cell, arcle, inrise, succeed, rerite. 
Get, go, gun, begin, ^ate: gem, ^erm, ^in^er, gymnasium, ^aol. 



PARTS OF SPEECH, P. 18. 93 

CHAPTER IV. P. 18. 

1. Forge: noun: The blacksmith is at h\s forge. 

verb : He tried to forge the signature. 
Contract : noun : The manufacturer hopes to obtain the contract. 

verb : He will contract to supply the goods in six weeks. 
Cold makes metals contract. 
Tear-, noun : A tear rolled down her cheek. 

The nail made a tear in her dress, 
verb : I was afraid the nail would tear your dress. 
Close: see Key, p. 15, Q. 2. 
Stone: noun : He was struck by a stone. 

noun (used as adj.) : I built a stone wall, 
verb: Do. not stone the frogs. 
Bear : noun : The bear attacked its leader, 
verb : His sufferings are hard to bear. 
The ice will bear to-morrow. 
Shade : noun : Let us rest in the shade. 

verb : The trees will shade us from the sun. 
Shed : noun : The cows are in their shed. 
verb : The oak has shed its leaves. 

2. Arrow, noun ; beside, adv. and prep. ; boy, noun ; grow, verb ; 
often, adv.; though, conj.; through, prep.; vain, adj.; vein, noun; ah, 
interj. 

There is no example of Pronouns. 

3. Head, 1. verb, 2. noun, 3. noun used as adj. Iron, 1. verb, 
2. noun. Deck, 1. noun, 2. noun used as adj., 3. verb. Paper, 1. verb, 
2. noun. Ship, 1. verb, 2. noun. Judge, 1. noun, 2. verb. Fine, 

1. verb, 2. noun, 3. adj. Second, 1. adj., 2. verb. Over, 1. noun, 

2. prep., 3. adv. Forward, 1. verb, 2. adv., 3. adj., 4. adverb used as 
noun. Back, 1. adv., 2. adj., 3. verb, 4. noun, 5. noun. Till, 1. verb, 
2. prep., 3. conj., 4. noun. Light, 1. verb, 2. noun, 3. adjective. 

4. Elegantly. — Once, how. — Now or just now. — Whence, whither. 



CHAPTER V. P. 23. 

1. School, class, form; staff; nosegay or bouquet; flock; covey; 
congregation; fleet; library. 

2. A village patriot; the dashing adversary in debate; some mute 
inglorious poet of noble style; a giant; a modern universal conqueror; 
lofty poets will flourish where liberal patrons abound. See Key, p. 18, 
Q. 12. 



94 NOUNS, P. 23. GENDER, P. 27. 

3. (a) Wildness, slowness or sloth, justness <?r justice, modesty, 
vigilance, freedom, deficiency. 

(b) Growth, knowledge, hatred, marriage. 

(c) Heroism, friendship, beggary, knavery. 

4. Impertinence, Abstr. {e.g. Impertinence is characteristic of ill- 
bred people) or Com. Concr. (e.g. His remark was a great im- 
pertinence). Jury, Com. Coll. Concr. Governor, Com. Concr. 
Day, Com. Concr. Squadron, Com. Coll. Concr. Youth, Abstr. 
(e.g. Rejoice in your youth) or Com. Concr. (e.g. He is a well- 
behaved youth). Knowledge, Abstr. Wellington, Proper, Concr. (also 
Com. Concr. as the name applied to top-boots). Talent, Abstr. (e.g. He 
has talent but not genius) or Com. Concr. (e.g. Our talents are of 
different kinds). Education, Abstr. Robert, Proper, Concr. Senate, 
Com. Coll. Concr. Boston, Proper, Concr. Truth, Abstr. (e.g. Truth 
will prevail in the end) or Com. Concr. (e.g. The truths of science are 
wonderful). Mob, Com. Coll. Concr. England, Proper, Concr. 

5. Three Graces, i.e. three deities called Graces because they 
possessed certain qualities. The name was thus not meaningless, like 
a Proper Noun : it was a Common noun but was applicable only to 
three individuals. The name Graces applied to the Gloucestershire 
family is Proper. The graces rejected by the senate were resolutions or 
motions: the noun is common. In 'a second Grace" 1 we have the 
Proper noun used as a Common noun: the sentence means 'We shall 
not soon see another cricketer equalling Grace in skill.' Grace is a 
Proper noun as the name of the girl with whom he danced : it is an 
Abstract noun when it denotes the graceful quality with which he 
danced. Grace is a Common noun when used to describe the benedic- 
tion pronounced by the chaplain. 

6. Colour, 1. Abs., 1. Abs. Friendship, 1. Abs., 2. Con., 3. Con. 
Art, 1. Abs., 2. Con. Life, 1. Abs., 2. Con. Length, r. Abs., 2. Con. 
Reason, 1. Abs., 2. Con. Beliefs, Con. Society, 1. Con., 2. Con. or 
Abs. Genius, 1. Abs., 2. Con. Beauty, 1. Abs., 2. Con. 

CHAPTER VI. P. 27. 

1. Maltster, tapster, songster, youngster, punster, gamester, trickster. 
Blonde, coquette, jilt, prude, termagant, laundress. 

2. Child, parent, cousin, baby, servant, pupil, spouse, orphan, 
fowl, cat, mouse, rat. 

Jackass, jenny-wren, tom-cat, billy-goat, nanny-goat. 

3. Lass, spinster (or maid), fox, heroine, nephew, belle, sultan, 
witch, monk (or friar), executrix, marchioness, traitress, ewe, peahen, 
abbess. 

4. Moon, Night, Liberty, Mercy. 



NUMBER, P. 32. 95 

CHAPTER VII. P. 32. 

1. (a) Oxen, foxes, teeth, heroes, folios, cargoes, fifes, knives, 
scarfs or scarves, proofs, hoofs, countries, monkeys, stories, storeys, 
beauties, wharfs or wharves, chiefs, kisses, eyes, colloquies, lilies, flag- 
staffs, cantos, flies (insects), flys (carriages), summonses, the Misses 
Jones or the Miss Joneses, the Messrs {i.e. Messieurs) Smith or the 
Mr Smiths. 

(b) Axes, formula? or formulas, appendices or appendixes, banditti 
or bandits, beaux, cherubim or cherubs, radii, genera, tableaux vivants, 
crocuses, animalcula, portmanteaus, media, plateaux or plateaus, 
mesdames. 

(c) Aides-de-camp, Lord Mayors, Knights Templars, maids-of- 
honour, major-generals, Frenchmen, Normans, talismans, castaways, 
lady-helps, heirs apparent, men-of-war, men-servants, brothers-in-law. 

2. Tumulus, series, effluvium, automaton, vertex, phenomenon, 
erratum, seraph, basis, criterion. 

3. People who have little to do are great talkers. The peoples of 
Europe differ in race, language and religion. 

The ark was built of wood. The woods have been cut down. 

The work was done in a skilful manner. You must improve your 
manners. 

He spoke with great force. The general led out his forces. 

The state of the battle-field made a sad spectacle. I have lost my 
spectacles. 

From this policy the nation has derived great good. The receipts 
from the carriage of goods have increased. 

Iroti is a most useful metal. The mutineers were put in irons. You 
have too many irons in the fire at once. 

This water is unfit for drinking. He is taking the waters at 
Bath. 

Sailors steered by the stars before the invention of the compass. 
Candidates must bring their own rulers and compasses. 

4. Reef, brief, chief, proof, gulf, cliff, grief. 

5. Wages is the plural of wage: the singular is still in use, e.g. 
*A fair day's work for a fair day's wage.'' Rightly therefore wages 
should take a verb in the plural. Perhaps in this quotation there is an 
inversion of the subject and the complement, the meaning being 'Death 
is the wages of sin ' : cf. ' Great is Diana ' for ' Diana is great.' — Small- 
pox and measles are true plurals, but as the names of diseases their 
construction is always singular. — Pains and means are also plural in 
form, but usage allows them to be treated either as plural or as singular. 
— Tidings is plural in form and usually takes a plural construction: 



96 CASE, P. 38. ADJECTIVES, Pp. 43—44. 

it occurs however with a singular construction. — Eaves is singular in 
form (like alms) but is now treated as a plural. — Gallows is really a plural 
but is used as a singular: barracks is plural in form and should be 
treated as such. — Odds is plural in form but is used both as plural and 
singular. — Mathe?natics is plural in form but is always treated as if 
singular. 



CHAPTER VIII. P. 38. 

1. Son's, sing. poss. fathers', plur. poss. men's, plur. poss. him, 
sing. obj. mice, plur. nom. and obj. mouse s, sing. poss. mice's, plur. 
poss. 

2. Man's, men's ; sheep's ; people's, peoples' ; tree's, trees' ; Moses' ; 
cow's, cows' ; dwarf's, dwarfs'; die's, dies', or dice's; Lord Chancellor's, 
Lord Chancellors' (but more properly of the Lord Chancellors) ; 
Secretary of the Home Department's, Secretaries of the Home Depart- 
ment's (but more properly of the Secretaries of the Home Department). 
The inflected possessive of gladness is not used. 

3. Heroines', lasses', songstresses', vixens', testatrices', women- 
servants' or maid-servants', princesses', mothers-in-law's, she-asses'. 

4. Tree, year, servant. 

5. Cain, nom., Abel, obj. — Abel, nom., Cain, obj. — Tom, nom., 
piper's, poss., son, nom., pig, obj. — To7?i-the-pipers, poss., son, nom., 
pig, oh).— John, nom. of address, or vocat., me, obj., friend, obj. — 
John, nom. of address, or voc, me, indirect obj., hansom, obj. — 
Neighbours, nom., him, obj., People's, poss., Friend, obj. 

CHAPTER IX. P. 43. 

1. Qualitative. Quantitative. Demonstrative. 
good books twenty books these books 
dear meat much meat that meat 
fine cows both cows his cows 
broad river no river a river 
fresh ideas few ideas first ideas 

2. That, dem., idle, qual., useful, qual. — Most, quant., some, 
dem., favourite, qual. — Few, quant., poor, qual., aristocratic, qual. — 
No, quant., same, dem., both, quant. — Two, quant., bad, qual. — 
All, quant., this, dem., little, qual. 

3. Adjective used as Noun : — This is believed by the wise (i.e. wise 
people). Burke wrote a book on the sublime and beautiful (i.e. sublimity 
and beauty). Beat up the white of an egg (i.e. the white part). He 
has gone from bad to worse (i.e. from a bad state to a worse one). 



ADJECTIVES, Pp. 43—44- 97 

Do you like French better than German? {i.e. the French language 
better than the German • language). Make room for your betters 
(i.e. better people). Two blacks don't make a white (i.e. black things, 
a white thing). 

Noun used as Adjective: — The paper mill near the canal bridge 
has been destroyed by a gunpowder explosion. — The tra?n line will be 
brought through the market square past the town hall and under the 
railway embankment. — The army tutor invested his savings in preference 
shares in a copper mine. 

'A dead level,' an unvarying level ; 'a dead heat,' an indecisive race, 
as more competitors than one reach the goal together; 'a dead shot,' 
an unerring shot. 

4. Contemporary people, green vegetables, incapable persons, italic 
letters, extreme measures or opinions, brilliant jewels, worthy persons, 
empty cases, capital letters or cities. 

5. Sleepy children, brazen impudence, truthful witnesses, eastern 
position, shady groves, lovely flowers, loveable disposition, vicious temper, 
priceles s jewels, foolish pamphlets, troublesome neighbours, ragged clothes, 
fiery furnace, disastrous earthquake, courageous soldiers, hearty greeting, 

heartless desertion. 

6. Put a before ewe, house, union, hm?ible, hearse, use, and an before 
heir, honour, historian, urn. Respecting historian however the usage 
of many people would vary. 

7. The sky is blue. The cottage looks clean. Your brother seems 
ill. The girls were glad. His success was splendid. Are you quite 
alone? The organ is too loud. They are much alike. His step has 
become very infirm. The boy will be sorry. 

See the note in text to Question. Though we can say 'Your brother 
seems ill' we cannot speak of 'Your ill brother.' ///is used attributively 
only in certain connexions, e.g. ill news, ill weeds, ill manners. Simi- 
larly we cannot speak of ' the glad girls ' : glad occurs attributively in 
only a few phrases, e.g. glad tidings, glad heart. Sorry is seldom used 
attributively : when so used its meaning is changed : e.g. ' He is a sorry 
fool ' does not signify the same thing as ' The fool is sorry.' Alone 
follows the noun to which it is attached : e.g. He alone escaped. Alike 
is not used attributively at all. 

8. Sublimity and Beauty. Truth. Absurdity. 
None but brave men deserve fair women. 

9. The following, strictly interpreted, do not admit of comparison : 
annual, square, golden, Asiatic, void, everlasting, indispensable. See 
p. 42, § 58. 

W. E. G. K. 7 



98 ADJECTIVES, P. 44. PRONOUNS, P. 51. 

10. (a) The boy seems happier than he was. His sister grows 
idler every day. She is really cleverer than her brother. You seldom 
see a saucier girl. The swelling looks bigger than it did yesterday. 
We shall be gayer in town. The summer is drier than it was last year. 
This is a more ridiculous proposal than the other. 

(b) He talked in the freest way. The custom is most usual. She 
is the shyest, girl in the school. Choose the reddest rose. The blossoms 
are most beautiful. Most people agree with me. This is a most un- 
fortunate occurrence. Send a message in (he fewest words. 

11. For nearest and next, latest and last, oldest and eldest, see Key, 
P- 2 4 > Q. 3- 

You should eat less meat. Give me fezver half-sovereigns. (Less 
denotes quantity, fewer denotes number.) 

He has few friends. He has a few friends. (Few means 'not many': 
a few means 'some.') 

12. Interior, senior, minor, inner, outer, former, eldef) upper. 

13. We often say 'I would sooner not go.' 



CHAPTER X. P. 51. 

1. The master lent the boy one of the master's books and told the 
boy that the boy was to return the book to the master when the boy's 
sister had read the book. 

(His is here a pronominal possessive adjective.) 

2. Interrogative, who ; Demonstrative, that, this ; Relative, which ; 
Personal, /, you. 

3. I was annoyed with you, whose interests I had always studied. 
Me, whose retaliation was dreaded, they never attacked. 

4. Those who live in glass houses should never throw stones. 
There are many by whom he was seen to do it. The man whom 

you mentioned has left the town. 

The trees that (nom.) stood on the summit have been cut down. 
I miss the trees that (obj.) I used to see. 

5. (1) He praised himself. You hurt yourselves* 

(2) He himself heard it. You said this yourselves. 
The first myself subject of despise, is emphatic; the second is 
reflexive, object of despise. 

6. 1. Demonst. pronominal adj. — 2. Demonst. — 3. Relat. — 
4. Demonst. — 5. Conj. — 6. Demonst. pronom. adj. — 7. Conj. — 
8. Demonst. — 9. Relat. — 10. Demon, pronom. adj. 



PRONOUNS, P. 51. VERBS, P. 56. 99 

7. Say he for him : — that for as : — as for which : — who for that: — 
each for either: — whomsoever for whosoever, i.e. Give the book (to him) 
to whomsoever (to give it) you please: in practice we should say 'Give 
the book to anyone you please, ' omitting the relative : — whom for which : 
— which for who : — one for either. 

8. Whatsoever, rel., these, dem. pron. adj.— ^, pers., /^atf, dem. 
(the relat. that or which following the demonst. being dropped ; in full, 
'We speak that which we do know'). — Who, relat., others, indef., it, 
demonst. of 3rd person (otherwise called 3rd pers. pron.), hii?iself, 
reflex, (used here with emphatic force). — Their (here signifying of them), 
demonst. of 3rd pers. (or 3rd pers. pron.). — That, relat. — Him, demonst. 
of 3rd pers. (or 3rd pers. pron.), that, relat. — What, interrog., this, 
dem. pronom. adj., ours, possess. — What, rel. (for That which), every- 
body, distrib. — One, another, indef., who, relat. (i.e. no one knows the 
man who will reap), or interrog. (i.e. no one knows the answer to the 
question who tuill reap?). — They, demonst., that, rel. — Whosoever, rel., 
you, pers., him, demonst. of 3rd pers. (or 3rd pers. pron.). — Anything, 
indef., one another, distrib. — Each, distrib., other, distrib. (or indef.), 
themselves, reflex. — Who, inter., that, demonst. pronom. adj., which y 
relative. 



CHAPTER XL P. 56. 

1. Can, trans, taking as its object the infin. do, trs. — snowed, 
impers. — slept, intrs. — called, trs. of incompl. pred. — look, intrs. of 
incompl. pred. — praised, trs. 

2. (a) Became is intrs., meaning 'came to be,' 'grew to be,' but 
trs., meaning 'was suitable to,' e.g. 'The dress became the lady.' 

Thought is intrs., e.g. ' He is busily thinking,' or trs., e.g. ' I thought 
him mad.' 

Is, seems, appeared, are intrs. 

Looks is intrs., e,g. 'He looks poorly,' or trs. 'He never looks you 
in the face.' 

(b) Gladstone once again became prime minister. 
We thought her much changed. 
Patience is a virtue. He is indolent. 
She seems sorry. This seems the way. 

The minister made his nephew secretary. The master made 
the boy sit up. 

The spots on the sun appeared larger. 

The commons chose Lenthall speaker. 

He looks astonished. She looks a duchess. 

They named the boy George. The boy was named George. 

7—2 



ioo VERBS, P. 56. 

(c) His arrogance ill became him. 
He thought before he answered. 
What is is, and what will be will be. 
The boys made a disturbance. 
Small-pox has appeared. 
Choose your career while you are a boy. 
The Speaker named the disorderly member. 

3. Blow the fire. The wind rattled the shutters, shook the floor, 
and cracked the glass. — The thundery weather has turned the milk. 
Turn the handle. — The sea air spoils the clothes. — You will improve 
your wine by keeping it. — Please open the door. — His exploits extended 
his fame. — A thought has struck me. The ball struck the umpire on 
the head. 

4. The wind makes the door keep on banging. — Butter will keep 
fresh in ice. — The pin ran into my finger. The boys ran a race. — The 
logs rolled down the hill. — The bell rang. Their shouts are still ringing 
in our ears. — The glass fell on the pavement and smashed to pieces. — 
Agriculture does not pay in England. Corn grows well in these 
latitudes. 

5- (a) Transitive use. (b) Intransitive use. 

He survived his brothers. He survived a few hours. 

I ran the boat up the bank. I ran a race. 

He is swimming his horse across He is swimming a mile. 

the river. 

We must walk the patient up and We must walk all the way. 

down the room. 



CHAPTER XII. P. 67. 

1. My dog was shot by Jones. He was sued for damages by me. 
A capital speech was made by my counsel. The sum of two pounds as 
compensation was awarded me by the jury. The money could not be 
paid by the defendant, so nothing was gained by me from the action. 
Jones was made a bankrupt by us, but no good was done to me by 
that. 

2. {a) The debt is forgiven you by me. 

A peerage was refused him by them, but a baronetcy was 

offered him. 
The appointment was offered me by him. 
His bill must be paid him by you. 
His verses were shown the head-master by the boy. 
The Indirect Objects are in italics. See p. 59, § 86. 



VERB FINITE, Pp. 67—68. 101 

(b) You are forgiven the debt by me. 

He was refused a peerage by them, but was offered a baronetcy. 

I was offered the appointment by him. 

He must be paid his bill by you. 

The head- master was shown his verses by the boy. 

3. He will have been travelling, act. indie, perf. continuous, sing. 
3rd. Has risen, act. indie, pres. perf. sing. 3rd. Is rising, act. indie, 
pres. indef. sing. 3rd. Will have overflowed, act. indie, fut. perf. sing. 
3rd. Tell, act. indie, or subj. pres. indef. plur. 2nd. Says, act. indie, 
pres. indef. sing. 3rd. Knew, act. indie, past indef. sing. 3rd. Protect, 
act. subj. pres. sing. 3rd. Were arrested, pass, indie, past indef. plur. 3rd. 
Have been convicted, pass, indie, pres. perf. plur. 3rd. Will be passed, pass, 
indie, fut. indef. sing. 3rd. / am sending, act. indie, pres. imperf. sing. 
1 st. We shall be going, act. indie, fut. imperf. plur. 1st. Treats, act. 
indie, pres. indef. sing. 3rd. / were, act. subj. past, sing. 1st. He found, 
act. indie, past indef. sing. 3rd. Had been lost, pass, indie, past perf. (or 
pluperf.) sing. 3rd. You call, act. indie, pres. indef. plur. 2nd. I shall 
be playing, act. indie, fut. imperf. sing. 1st. You will find, act. indie, 
fut. indef. plur. 2nd. / know, act. indie, pres. indef. sing. 1st. / was 
learning, act. indie, past imperf. sing. 1st. Was paid, pass, indie, past 
indef. sing. 3rd. 

4. The first three sentences are correct. In the fourth for has laid 
say has lain. The fifth is right. In the sixth for lay say lie. For over- 
flown say overflowed. For ate say eaten. The next is right : be is present 

subjunctive, expressing doubt : is would also be right, meaning ' If it is 
so, as you assure me is the fact.' For b lowed say blown. The next is 
right. For forsook say forsaken. In the next awoke is right, but rang 
and began should be rung and begun, and chided should be chid. 

5. Been, hoped, split, sought, proffered, preferred, sewn or sewed, 
sown or sowed, tied, frozen. 

6. Flee, fly, fling, bring, lade, show, put, wear, creep, shoot, espy, 
strew, tread, clothe, choose. 

CHAPTER XIII. P. 75. 

1. Jn running. Gerund. Of fishing, Gerund. Acting, talking, Gerunds. 
Throzving, Participle, hiding, Gerund. The bowling. Verbal Noun. 
In bowling, Gerund. Bowling {he, &c), Participle. Bowling [shooters, 
&c), Gerund. Living, Gerund, by writing, Gerund. The writing, 
Verbal Noun, of earning, Gerund, living, Noun. Writing, Gerund. In 
writing, Gerund. (Him) writing, Participle. The writing, Verbal Noun. 

2. '■Running footman,' Participle (i.e. a footman who runs), or 
Gerund (i.e. a footman for running). 'Running account,' Participle. 



102 VERB INFINITE, P. 75. ADVERBS, P. 79. 

* Writing-table, ' Gerund. 'Smoking-room,' Gerund. 'Smoking flax,' 
Participle. 'Acting manager,' Participle. ' Frying-^oz.x\,' Gerund. 
'Crossing- sweeper,' Gerund (i.e. sweeper of crossing). 'Freezing 
reception,' Participle. 'Freezing mixture,' Gerund (i.e. mixture 
for freezing things). ' Ealing-hou?,e, ' Gerund. 'Managing director,' 
Participle (who manages), or Gerund (for managing). 'Dissolving 
view,' Participle. 'Laughing jackass,' Participle. ' Magni/ying-glass,' 
Gerund. 

3. Cleft or cleaved, melted, drunk, sunk, roasted. 

Cloven hoof, molten metal, drunken man, sunken ship, roast meat. 

CHAPTER XIV. P. 79. 

1. Adverbs of Time, continually, weekly; Place, there', Degree, 
nearly, quite; Manner, weakly; Certainty, perhaps; Consequence, 
therefore. 

2. (1) Finely, ably, merrily, holily: (2) homewards, headlong, 
once and only, daily, ashore. 

3. 'Only Brown' means Brown alone: Brown and nobody else. 
'Brown only passed' means that Brown did nothing more than pass: 
he did not obtain a prize or honours. ' Brown passed only in French ' 
means that he passed in no subject besides French. 

4. Adverbs. Prepositions. 
Please to walk up. Shall we walk up the hill? 
He came in. He is in debt. 

The matter can stand over. Jump over the hedge. 

This was stated above. He is above me in class. 

He came shortly after. He came after me. 

I am always moving about. Go about your business. 

You never said so before. Go in before me. 

Do you expect to get through? Pass through the gate. 

Put this in between. This is betwee?i you and me. 

5. He is fond of sport. Your case is different from mine. The 
delay will be inconvenient to (or for) me. This candidate is worthy 
distinction. Are you dependent on his support? I am independent 
anyone's support. He was angry with me : he was angry at my joke. 

6. I acquit you of dishonesty. After conferring with the ministe 
about the treaty, the king conferred upon him the order of the garter. 
I differ from you on this point. The butler waited on us at table : we 
were kept waiting for the soup. Resolve to do this: at any rate 
resolve on making the attempt. I sympathize with you in your loss. 
.Shall we protest against his conduct? 



CONJUNCTIONS, AND WORD-BUILDING. 103 

CHAPTER XV. P. 84. 

1. But, 1. Preposition {except). 2. Conjunction. 3. Adverb 
(only). In, 1. Adv., 2. Prep., 3. Adv. After, 1. Conj., 2. Prep., 
3. Adv. For, 1. Prep., 2. Conj. 

2. Whether you believe it <?r not, the story is true. I neither said 
so ?ior thought so. I want neither this nor that. I am not so sure 
about this as you are. He is not so silly as you think. He lay in bed 
so long that he missed his train. 

3. t. Adverbial: 'We must go below presently? 2. Noun: 'I 
don't know the time.'' 3. Adjectival: 'The exact hour varies.' 4. 
Adjectival: 'The successful boy.' 5. Noun: 'He asked a question.'' 
6. Noun: 'I thought this.' .7. Adjectival: 'The former evil.' 8. 
Adjectival: ' The precise spot.' 9. Noun: 'I see the place? 10. Ad- 
verbial: 'He broke his leg there.'' n. Adverbial: T will perhaps 
come.' 

CHAPTER XVI. P. 89. 

1. La.mh-kin, diminutive ; peace-ful, possessing a quality in a high 
degree; bright-*?;*, causative; ma.id-en, diminutive; joy-ous, possessing 
a quality in a high degree; stream-let, diminutive; cold-ish, possessing 
a quality in a low degree ; dark-ness, state or quality ; reader, agent ; 
spin-ster, feminine. 

2. Contra-, 'against,' controvert, contravene; dis-, 'not,' disease, 
displease; sus- (sub-), 'under,' sustain, support; con-, ' with,' conduct, 
consonant; sub-, 'under,' subterranean, subdivision; fore-, 'before,' 
foretell, foresee; anti-, 'against,' antipodes, antipathy; ante-, 'before,' 
antediluvian, antechamber; un-, 'not,' unlike, unjust ; super-, 'above,' 
superlative, superfine. 

3. Ynrx-fy, crystal-l-z'z^, black-^zz, cleanse, assassin -ate, chat-t-i?r, 
spark -le. 

4. /w-proper, afcy-similar, z'r-reverent, non-sense, un-ho\y, in- 
audible, zm-fortunate. 

5. c7;z-just, 'not just,' )\xst\-fy, 'to make just'; faith-/}*/, 'trusty,' 
faith-less, 'not keeping faith,' 'untrustworthy'; tin- friend-/^, 'not friendly,' 
friendship, 'the friendly condition,' friend-/^, 'without friends,' be- 
friend, 'to act as a friend to another'; wzz-wise, 'not wise,' wis-dom, 
'the quality of being wise'; hard-ship, 'hard treatment,' hard-ness, 'the 
quality of being hard,' hard-j, 'hard to endure labour,' hard-/?/, 'in a 
hard way,' 'with difficulty'; joy-ful, 'possessing the quality of joy in 
abundance,' ]oy-less, 'not possessing the quality of joy'; solidi-/j, 'the 
quality of being solid,' so\id-i-fy, 'to make solid'; dis-honour, 'to de- 
prive of honour,' dis-honour -able, 'not having the quality of honour'; 



104 WORD-BUILDING, AND SYNTAX, Pp. 103-104. 

un-man, 'to deprive of manly qualities,' man-//, 'possessing manly 
qualities,' man-hood, 'the qualities of a man,' manni-hin, 'a little man'; 
woocW«, 'made of wood,' wood-/, 'having woods.' 

6. Circum-, 'round,' circumference, circumscribe; per-, 'through,' 
perform, perhaps; tin-, 'not,' unhappy, unfamiliar; mis-, 'badly,' mis- 
deed, mishap; ante-, 'before,' antecedent, antediluvian; anti-, 'against,' 
antagonist, antipathy; -tude, 'quality,' fortitude, altitude; -fy, 'to 
make,' fortify, glorify; -ion, 'state, quality,' ambition, emotion; -dom, 
'state, quality,' freedom, wisdom. 

7. ^43-breviate, ac-ce&e, aggressor, a/-lude, announce, ap-veav, 
as-sent, at-tend. 

//-lusion, im-pe\, z'r-regular, m-dure. 
Oc-cm, of-fend, op-pose, ^-tensive, <?-mit. 



CHAPTER XVII. P. 103. 

1 — 5. These sentences contain participial phrases which are not 
absolute though they were meant to be so. See p. 91, § 130. They 
may be connected in various ways. 

1. 'Observing the house on fire, I (or they) sent for the engines. 

2. 'The day being fine, I wore no overcoat.' 

3. 'When you stand on the bridge, the view is magnificent.' 

4. 'Cheered by their approval, he made rapid progress. 1 

5. ' Sitting at the open window, he took a chill which settled on 
his lungs.' 

6. 'You ought not to use arguments of this kind.' See p. 94, 

§ '37- 

For 7—10 and 12 see p. 94, § 138. 

7. ' I hear that each of the policemen was injured.' 

8. 'Each of the combatants thinks himself right.' 

9. '/r either of these statements true?' 

10. ' Every one of the houses was flooded.' 

11. ' None but the brave deserves the fair.' None is no one in its 
origin and so would take a singular verb. But it came to be used with 
the meaning not any and in this sense took a plural verb. At the 
present day the plural construction with none is more usual than the 
singular. 

12. 'Each of the two essays is good, but yours is the better. 1 
Either means l onc of two.' See p. 94, § 139 (1), for error in com- 
parison. 






SYNTAX, Pp. 103—104. 105 

13. 'Of all constitutions, the English most nearly approaches 
perfection.' For all other see p. 95, § 139 (4). If we interpret the 
word strictly, perfect does not admit of degrees of comparison : see 
P- 42, § 58 (i). 

14. 'Iron is more useful than any other metal.' See p. 94, 
§ 139 (3)- 

15. 'The population of Glasgow is greater than that of Edin- 
burgh.' Seep. 95, § 139 (5). 

For 16 — 18 see p. 95, § 140. 

16. ' He won renown in the Old World and the New.' 

17. 'I saw a black and a white man arm in arm.' 

18. ' The chairman and the secretary sat opposite each other.' 

19. 'He walks just as a duck waddles.' See p. 95, § 141. 

20. 'Nobody writes quite as you do.' Ibid. 

21. 'I am one of those who are disgusted at his conduct.' The 
antecedent to who is those. See p. 97, § 145 (1). 

22. ' This is one of the bedrooms that have a fire-place.' The 
antecedent to that is bedrooms. Ibid. 

23. ' Whom is that parcel for?' or 'For whom is that parcel?' The 
preposition for requires the objective case. 

24. ' Who do people say that he is?' See p. 97, § 147 (3). 

25. ' Who they were, I must not disclose. ' In Example 24 is 
requires the pronoun who to be in the same case as the pronoun he'. 
in this Example were requires who to be in the same case as they. 

26. 'I can't think whom he meant.' The transitive verb meant 
requires the objective case: e.g. 'You meant him,'' not he. See p. 97, 
§ 147 (1). 

Examples 27 — 31 contain instances of false concord between the 
verb and its subject, arising in each case from attraction, i.e. the 
influence of a noun, of different number from that of the subject, just in 
front of the verb. 

27. 'Nothing but novels and plays interests him.' The subject is 
nothing, not novels and flays. 

28. ' The beauties of the landscape charm the tourist.' 

29. 'The range of his accomplishments surprises me.' 

30. ' Not a line of your verses is written correctly. ' 

31. 'Variety in one's amusements is desirable.' 

32. 'The jury were unanimous in their opinion,' or 'The jury was 
unanimous in its opinion.' Either construction is legitimate, but we 



106 SYNTAX, Pp. 103—104. 

must preserve throughout the same sentence whichever we adopt. See 
p. 98, § 148 (1). 

33. ' The Newcomes was written by Thackeray.' See p. 98, 
§ 148 (2). 

34. 'The captain with the other officers was drowned ' (see p. 98, 
§ 148, 4), or 'The captain and the other officers were drowned.' 

35. ' The building, in addition to its contents, was destroyed' 
{Ibid.), or ' The building and its contents were destroyed.' As with and 
to ('in addition /<?') are prepositions, the nouns officers and contents are in 
the objective case : thus they cannot form any part of the subject of the 
verb. 

36. ' They could not guess where I or my brother was.' See p. 
99, first paragraph. 

37. ' Our success or our failure generally depends on ourselves. ' 
Seep. 98, § 148(5). 

38. ' Will you let my brother and me go for a walk ? ' The 
verb let is transitive, and is followed by a noun in the objective 
case. 

39. 'I want only a few shillings to make up the amount.' See 
p. 102, § 154. 

40. ' He will be much (or greatly, or very much) annoyed by (or at) 
your conduct.' See p. 102, § 155. 

41. ' They are worse off than we.'' See p. 103, § 156. 

42. ' He is as strong as I am, or even stronger.' See p. 103, 
§ 157. 

43. ' No one plays more skilfully than he or as successfully.' 
Ibid. 

44. ' Neither his happiness nor his misery was deserved.' See 
p. 103, § 159. Nor and or are disjunctive: hence if the subjects are 
singular the verb must be singular. See p. 98, § 148 (?)• 

45. ' Everybody knows the reason except him.'' Except is a pre- 
position. 

46. ' There is nobody that saw it done but you and me.'' Here 
but is a preposition, meaning ' except.' 

47. ' Let this be .a secret between you and me? Between is a 
preposition. 

48. ' This case is entirely different from that.' Our idiom requires 
from after the adjective different. 

49. ' I was there as well as he.' The conjunction as is followed by 
the pronoun he in the same case as that of the corresponding pronoun / 
which preceded it. 



ANALYSIS, Pp. 116— 118. 



107 



50. 'Your cousin is not so clever as she.' The error in these two 
sentences is obvious if we complete the ellipsis in each Example : 
1 1 was there as well as he was there ' : ' Your cousin is not so clever as 
she is clever.'' 

NOTES ON PASSAGES FOR ANALYSIS. P. 116. 





ABBREVIATIONS. 




Absol. 


Absolute 


Interj. 


Interjection 


a. a.'s 


Adjunct, Adjuncts 


Interrog. 


Interrogative 


Adjl. 


Adjectival 


Obj. 


Object 


Advl. 


Adverbial 


Phr. 


Phrase 


Appos. 


Apposition 


Pred. 


Predicate 


CI. 


Clause 


Predn. 


Predication 


Compl. 


Complement 


Prin. 


Principal 


Dir. Obj. 


Direct Object 


Subj. 


Subject 


Incompl. 


Incomplete 


Subord. 


Subordinate 


Ind. Obj. 


Indirect Object 


Voc. 


Vocative 



1. Simple. Pred. ' make,' here a verb of incompl. predn. ' fine,' 
compl. of pred. (Feathers do not make birds: they make birds fine.) 

2. Simple. 

3. Simple: 'of sins,' a. of obj. 'multitude.' 

4. Complex. ' Who live in glass houses,' Adjl. CI. limiting 
'people.' 

5. Simple. Take together the words 'can serve' as Pred. 

6. Simple. Subj. 'destiny,' a. of Subj. 'of nations.' 

7. Compound. (1) 'Good words cost nothing,' (2) 'Good words 
are worth much.' 'Nothing' and 'much' are advl. a.'s of preds. 
' cost ' and ' are worth ' respectively. 

8. Compound. Supply in second CI. ' We have.' ' Not ' is advl. 
a. of pred. 

9. Simple. Supply subj. 'you.' 

10. Simple: 'with rags,' advl. a. of pred. 'shall clothe.' 

11. Simple. Pred. ' can change.' 

12. Simple. 

13. Compound. (1) 'We are what shadows': Pred. 'are shadows,' 
formed of verb of incompl. predn. 'are,' compl. 'shadows': adjl. a. of 
'shadows,' 'what.' In (2) 'what shadows' is obj. 

14. Complex. Prin. CI. 'He doeth much' {obj. 'much'). Subord. 
Adjl. CI. limiting 'he,' 'That doeth a thing well.' 



io8 ANALYSIS, Pp. 116— 118. 

15. Complex. Prin.Cl. * The tug of war was then,' Advl. Cl. a. 
of pred. 'was,' 'When Greek joined Greek.' 

16. Complex. Adjl. CL 'That loveth another,' limiting ' He' in 
Prin. Cl. ' He hath fulfilled the law.' 

17. The parts of an Interrog. Sentence have the same relations as 
those of the answer : ' Who knows not ?' ' He knows not.' Subj. ' Who,' 
pred. 'knows,' advl. a. of pred. 'not,' Noun CL obj. of pred. 'That 
Truth is strong.' Omit conjunction that from analysis of subord. 
Noun CL 

18. Simple. Omit interj. 'O' and noun in voc. case 'my country- 
men': 'what,' adjl. a. of subj. 'fall.' 

19. Complex. 'As we advance in life,' Advl. CI. a. of pred. 
' learn.' 

20. Complex. ' If the sky fall, ' Advl. CI. a. of pred. ' shall 
catch.' Analysis of subord. cl. Subj. ' sky, ' pred. 'fall.' Omit con- 
junction ' if. ' 

21. Complex: 'whom truth and wisdom lead,' Adjl. CL limiting 
'they.' This Adjl. Clause may be regarded as itself Compound: 
(i) 'whom truth leads,' (2) 'whom wisdom leads.' Or 'truth and 
wisdom ' may be taken jointly as a compound subject. Analysis of 
subord. cl. Subj. ' Truth and wisdom,' /mZ. 'lead,' <?£/'. 'whom.' 

22. Two Simple Sentences : though separated only by a colon 
they are not connected by a conjunction. ' Many times ' and ' before 
their deaths,' advl. a.'s of ' die.' ' Never but once,' i.e. 'never except 
once ' and ' of death,' advl. a.'s of ' taste.' 

23. Complex: 'where the brook is deep,' Advl. Cl. a. of 'runs': 
'smooth' is also Advl. a. tf/"'runs.' 

24. Complex: 'whom it does not convert,' Adjl. CL limiting 
'those.' 

25. Compound and Complex. 'Ignorance believes [it is right']: 
'it is right,' Noun Cl. Obj. of 1 believes.' 

26. Complex : ' if two of them are dead,' Advl. CL a. of 'may keep.' 
'Of them,' a. of Subj. 'two.' 

27. Two Complex Sentences, the Subord. Adjl. Clauses ' who 
always drink,' 'who never think,' limiting 'they.' 

28. Complex: 'that treadeth out the corn,' Adjl. Cl. a. of obj. 'ox.' 

29. Contains a Simple Sentence in first couplet: 'rich with the 
spoils of Time ' is an Adjl. Phrase a. of obj. ' page.' The second couplet 
contains a Compound Sentence. 

30. Complex: 'as morning shows the day,' Advl. Cl. a. of pred. 
' shows.' 



ANALYSIS, Pp. 116— 118. 109 

31. Complex. Prin. Cl. 'You,' subj., 'let,' pred., 'him,' indir. 
obj., * set down only what he knows,' dir. obj., ' if a man write a book,' 
subord. advl. cl. a. of 'let.' Subord. Noun CI. {obj. of 'set down'), 

' only what he knows ' : subj. 'he,' pred. ' knows,' obj. 'what,' adjl. a. of 
obj. ' only.' 

32. Complex: 'who do not need one,' Adjl. Cl. limiting ' those.' 
'Only,' adjl. a. of' those.' 

33. Complex : 'while the sun shines,' Advl. Cl. a. of pred. 'make.' 
In Prin. Cl. supply subj. ' you.' 

34. Two Simple Sentences. Supply subj. 'you' with 'be.' 'It is 
madness to defer,' Provisional subj. 'it,' Real subj. 'to defer' (or, Subj. 
'it,' Enlargement of subj. 'to defer'): compl. 'madness' of incompl. 

predicate 'is.' 

35. Complex: ' which they do not themselves understand,' subord. 
adjl. cl. limiting 'things.' We may take 'great and wise things' as 
a compound object of 'utter,' or may regard the Principal Clause as 
itself Compound. (1) ' Poets utter great things,' (2) ' Poets utter .wise 
things. ' 

36. Compound. For 'make' as incomplete predicate see Example 1. 
The pred. in the second clause is 'make more bitter.' 

37. Two Simple Sentences. Supply 'Thou' with 'pin.' 'Of thine 
own' is Adjl. a. of 'eyes.' 

38. Omit ' Dr Fell.' Simple Sentence, 'I do not love thee.' 
Complex: Prin. Cl. 'I cannot tell the reason.' Subord. Noun Cl. in 
Apposition with 'reason,' ' Why I do not love thee.' In the Noun Cl. 
'why' is Advl. a. of pred. 'do love.' 

39. Simple. 'How,' advl. a. of pred. 'doth improve.' 

40. Two Compound Sentences: (i) 'Give every man {indir. obj.) 
thine ear' {dir. obj.)-. (2) 'Give few (men) thy voice.' (1) 'Take each 
man's {a. of obj.) censure ': (2) 'Reserve thy judgment.' Supply in each 
instance subj. ' Thou.' 

41. A Complex and a Simple Sentence. 'That {obj.) men {subj.) do,' 
subord. adjl. cl. limiting ' evil. ' 

42. Complex : Prin. Cl. ' Extreme gusts will blow out fire and 
all ' {compound obj.), advl. a.'s of pred. 'yet,' and the Advl. Cl. ' though 
little fire grows great with little wind.' 'Great,' compl. of pred. 
'grows.' 

43. Complex: (1) 'that has entered once into the breast,' Adjl. Cl. 
limiting 'care': (2) 'ere it rest,' Advl. Cl. a. of pred. 'will have': 
'it,' subj., 'rest,' p'ed., 'ere,' advl. a. of pred. ('Rest' is the present 
subjunctive.) 



no ANALYSIS, Pp. 116— 118. 

44. Two Simple Sentences and a Complex Sentence. ' But,' 
i.e. ' however,' advl. a. of pred. in Prin. CI. ' The very wind may dash 
us on the shelves.' Subord. Clauses, (i) 'if the pilot slumber at the 
helm,' Advl. CI. a. of pred. 'may dash': (2) 'that wafts us towards the 
ports,' Adjl. CI. a. of subj. 'wind.' 

45. Complex. Prin. CI. 'To know that {subj.) is (verb ofincompl. 
predn.) the prime wisdom' [complement) : 'Which before us lies in daily 
life,' Subord. Adjl. CI. li?niting 'that.' 

46. Complex. Subord. Clauses, (1) 'when you do take the prop,' 
Advl. a. of pred. 'take': (2) 'that doth sustain my house,' Adjl. a. 
of obj. ' prop.' 

47. Complex. Omit interj. ' O.' Prin. CI. 'We weave web,' 
adjuncts of obj. 'what,' 'a,' 'tangled.' Subord. Advl. CI. a. of pred. 
' when first we practise to deceive ' : subj. ' we,' pred. ' practise,' advl. 
a.'s of pred. 'when,' 'first,' obj. 'to deceive.' 

48. Compound and Complex. (1) 'They gazed still.' (2) 'The 
wonder [that one small head could carry all he knew, Noun CI. in 
Apposition with subject 'wonder'] grew.' The Noun CI. contains a 
Subord. Adjl. CI. 'he knew,' i.e. 'which he knew,' adjl. a. of'sdl': 
'he,' subj., 'knew,' pred., 'which,' obj. 

49. A Simple and a Complex Sentence. ' What,' subj. ' is,' verb of 
incompl. predn. ' in a name,' advl. a. of pred. Complex : ' That ' subj. 
['which we call a rose,' Adjl. CI. a. of Subj.], 'would smell' pred., 'as 
sweet' advl. a. of pred., 'by any other name,' i.e. 'called otherwise,' 
adjl. a. of subj. Analysis of Subord. CI. : 'We' subj., 'call' incompl. 
pred., 'a rose' objective cotnplement of pred., 'which' object. 

50. Complex. Provisional subj. 'It,' Peal subj. 'To have a thank- 
less child' (see Example 34), 'is sharper,' pred., 'how (much)' advl. a. 
of complement of pred., ' than a serpent's tooth is sharp ' Advl. CI., a. of 
pred. Analysis of Subord. CI. (omit 'than'): Subj. ' tooth,' pred. 'is 
sharp.' 

51. Compound : (1) 'He drew each change, &c.' (2) ' He exhausted 
worlds.' (3) ' He imagined new (worlds) then.' 

52. Compound. 

53. Complex. Pred. ' could unfold,' Subord. Adjl. CI. limiting 
object 'tale,' 'whose... soul.' 

54. Complex. Omit interj. 'oh.' 'Maid of Athens' may also be 
omitted, or may be inserted as appositional adjunct of subj. ' you ' : 
indir. obj. 'me,' dir. obj. 'heart.' Subord. CI. 'ere we part,' advl. a. 
of pred. 'give.' 

55. Two Simple Sentences. ' How far,' advl. a. of pred. 'throws.' 



ANALYSIS, Pp. 116— 118. in 

56. Compound and Complex. ' Condemned with life to part,' 
adjl. phr. limiting ' wretch.' 'That rends the heart,' Subord. CI. adjl. 
a. of 1 pang.' ' Rise,' i.e. 'to rise,' advl. a. of pred. 'bids' (the infinitive 
denoting purpose). 

57. Two Complex Sentences, (i) Prin. CI. 'I hear a voice,' 
Subord. Adjl. Clauses limiting obj . 'voice,' (i) 'Which you cannot hear,' 
i.e. 'You,' subj., 'cannot hear,' pred., 'which,' obj., (ii) 'Which says 
[I must not stay'], 'which,' subj., 'says,' pred., 'I must not stay,' Subord. 
Noun CI. obj. ('I,' subj., 'must stay,' pred., 'not,' advl. a. of pred.). 
Similarly (2) Prin. CI. ' I see a hand,' Subord. Clauses limiting ' hand,' 
(i) ' which {obj.) you cannot see,' (ii) ' which (subj.) beckons me 
away.' 

58. Complex. Prin. CI. ' The land fares ill ' ; Adjuncts of ' land,' 
Adjl. Phrase, 'to hastening ills a prey' and Subord. Adjl. Clauses, 
(1) 'Where' (i.e. 'in which') 'wealth accumulates,' (2) 'Where' (i.e. 'in 
which ') ' men decay.' 

59. Complex. Prin. CI. ' The part is small.' ' How,' advl. a. of 
compl. ' small ' of incompl. pred. ' is,' adjl. a.'s of subj. ' part,' ' of all [that 
human hearts endure,' Adjl. CI. limiting ' all '] and Subord. Clauses — 

' laws ) \ can cause J 



, which.' 
kings) (can cure 

60. Complex. Subord. Clauses — 

C 1. man ' 
' who loveth well -I 2 . bird ' 
^3. beast ' 

which are Adjl. a.'s of'He,' subj. of Prin. CI. 

61. Compound and Complex. 

' The sons of honour \ ' , /if honour,' &c. 

Advl. a.'s of each pred. (i) 'If honour calls,' and of pred. 'follow,' (ii) 
'Where'er she points the way.' 'Where'er,' advl. a. of pred. 'points.' 

62. Complex. Prin. CI. 'Woe does sit,' Advl. a.'s of pred. 'the 
heavier' (i.e. 'in the more heavy manner'), and Advl. CI. 'where it 
perceives [it is but faintly borne '] Noun CI. obj. of ' perceives ' : ' but 
faintly,' advl. a. of 'is borne.' 

63. A Simple and a Complex Sentence. ' With the sun and moon,' 
advl. a. of pred. 'For ever blessing those,' Adjl. Phr. adjunct of subj. 
4 they.' ' That look on them,' Subord. Adjl. CI. limiting ' those.' 

64. Two Complex Sentences. In (1) 'when soft voices die' is an 
Advl. CI. a. of pred. 'vibrates.' In (2) 'when sweet violets sicken' is 
an Advl. CI. a. of pred. ' live.' ' They quicken ' is an Adjl. CI. limiting 
' sense,' the relative being omitted : in full thus : ' which they quicken,' 
subj. 'they,' pred. 'quicken,' obj. 'which.' 



ii2 ANALYSIS, Pp. 116— 118. 

65. Treat this passage as containing two Simple Sentences: 'and' 
is redundant as it does not really join the two sentences, the first 
sentence being declaratory and the second sentence interrogative. 
' Reader ' may be omitted, or inserted as an appositional adjunct of subj. 
'you.' Advl. a?s of ' have come,' pred., 'now,' 'to the end.' In the 
second sentence 'how 7 ,' 'by the way' are AdvL a.'s of pred. 'have 
fared.' 



Cambridge: printed by j. and c. f. clay, at the university press. 



THE PITT PRESS SERIES. 



COMPLETE LIST. 





GREEK. 


• 




Author 


Work 


Editor 


Price 


Aeschylus 


Prometheus Vinctus 


Rack ham 


7/6 


Aristophanes 


Aves — Plutus — Ranae 


Green 


3/6 each 


,, 


Vespae 


Graves 


3/6 


5 f 


Nubes 


j> 


3/6 


Demosthenes 


Olynthiacs 


Glover 


2/6 


Euripides 


Heracleidae 


Beck & Headlam 3/6 


»» 


Hercules Furens 


Gray & Hu 


tchinson ij- 


>? 


Hippolytus 


Hadley 


*l- 


,, 


Iphigeneia in Aulis 


Headlam 


2/6 


»» 


Medea 


,, 


2/6 


,, 


Hecuba 


Hadley 


2/6 


5> 


Helena 


Pearson 


3/6 


>> 


Alcestis 


Hadley 


2/6 


> J 


Orestes 


Wedd 


4/6 


Herodotus 


Book v 


Shuckburgr 


3/- 




„ VI, VIII, IX 


,, 


4/- each 


»» 


,, vm 1—90, ix 1—89 


) > 


2/6 each 


Homer 


Odyssey ix, x 


Edwards 


2/6 each 


>> 


„ XXI 


,, 


2/- 




XI 


Nairn 


2/- 




Iliad vi, xxii, xxiii, xxiv 


Edwards 


2/- each 




Iliad ix, x 


Lawson 


2/6 


Lucian 


Somnium, Charon, etc. 


Heitland 


3/6 


>> 


Menippus and Timon 


Mackie 


3/6 


Plato 


Apologia Socratis 


Adam 


3/6 


»» 


Crito 


)5 


2/6 


5> 


Euthyphro 


J> 


2/6 


>f 


Protagoras 


J. & A. M. 


Adam 4/6 


Plutarch 


Demosthenes 


Holden 


4/6 


,, 


Gracchi 


,, 


61- 


>> 


Nicias 


,, 


5l r 




Sulla 


,, 


61- 


,, 


Timoleon 


„ 


61- 


Sophocles 


Oedipus Tyrannus 


Jebb 


4/- 


Thucydides 


Book III 


Spratt 


5/- 




Book VI 


>» 


In the Press 


>> 


Book vii 


Holden 


5/- 


35000 


I 






21/10/03 









THE PITT PRESS SERIES. 
GREEK continued. 



Author 


Work 


Editor 


Price 


Xenophon 


Agesilaus 


Hailstone 


2/6 


„ 


Anabasis Vol. I. Text 


Pretor 


3/- 




, 


Vol. 11. Notes 


> ? 


4/6 




, 


I, n 


,, 


4/- 






„ I, III, IV, V 


>> 


i\- each 




1 


„ II, VI, VII 


„ 


2/6 each 




, 


Hellenics I, II 


Edwards 


3/6 




> 


■Cyropaedeia I 


Shuckburgh 


2/6 




J 


,, ii 


>> 


2/- 




, 


„ III, IV, V 


Holden 


5/- 




> 


„ VI, VII, VIII 


,. 


5/- 






Memorabilia I 


Edwards 


2/6 




»l 


II 


> j 


2/6 




LATIN. 






Bede 


Eccl. History in, iv 


Lumby 


7/6 


Caesar 


De Bello Gallico 








Com. i, in, vi, vm 


Peskett 


1/6 each 


»> 


,, it— in, and vn 


,, 


2/- each 


»j 


,, l— in 


,, 


*b 


,, 


,, IV-V 


>> 


1/6 




De Bello Civili. Com. I 


Peskett 


3/- 


>» 


,, ,, Com. in 


»> 


2/6 


Cicero 


Actio Prima in C. Verrem 


Cowie 


1/6 


j> 


De Amicitia 


Reid 


3/6 


»> 


De Senectute 


j> 


3/6 




De Officiis. Bk in 


Holden 


2/- 


>> 


Pro Lege Manilia 


Nicol 


1/6 


« 


Div. in Q. Caec. et Actio 








Prima in C. Verrem 


Heitland & Cowie 3/- 


>» 


Ep. ad Atticum. Lib Ii 


Pretor 


3/- 


» 


Orations against Catiline 


Nicol 


2/6 


»» 


Philippica Secunda 


Peskett 


3/6 


>» 


Pro Archia Poeta 


Reid 


2/- 


»> 


„ Balbo 


„ 


1/6 


,, 


„ Milone 


>> 


2/6 


» 


,, Murena 


Heitland 


3/- 


ii 


„ Plancio 


Holden 


4/6 


»» 


,, Sulla 


Reid 


3/6 


»> 


Somnium Scipionis 


Pear man 


*/- 


Cornelius 


Nepos Four parts 


Shuckburgh 


1/6 each 


Horace 


Epistles. Bk I 


•a 


2/6 


»i 


Odes and Epodes 


Gow 


5/- 


j ? 


Odes. Books I, in 


i> 


if- each 


»» 


,, Books ii, iv ; Epod< 


- s ii 


\j6each 


i> 


Satires. Book i 


»i 


if- 


Juvc 


nal 


Satires 


Duff 


Sl- 



THE PITT PRESS SERIES. 



LATIN continued. 



Author 


Work 




Editor 


Price 


Livy 


Book I 


H. 


J. Edwards In the Press 


>» 


„ n 




Conway 


2/6 


>> 


„ IV, IX, XXVII 




Stephenson 


2/6 each 


11 


„ VI 




Marshall 


2/6 


>» 


ii v 




Whihley 


2/6 


»i 


,, XXI, XXII 




Dimsdale 


2/6 each 


,, (adapted from) Story of the Kings of Rome 


G. M. Edwards 


1/6 


Lucan 


Pharsalia. Bk I 




Heitland & Haskins 1/6 


?> 


De Bello Civili. Bk vn 




Postgate 


2/- 


Lucretius 


Book ill 




Duff 


*/- 


>> 


„ v 




,, 


2/- 


Ovid 


Fasti. Book vi 




Sidgwick 


1/6 


,, 


Metamorphoses, Bk I 




Dowdall 


1/6 


>i 


„ Bk vin 




Summers 


1/6 


Phaedrus 


Fables 




Flather 


1/6 


Plautus 


Epidicus 




Gray 


3/" 


>} 


Stichus 




Fennell 


2/6 


j» 


Trinummus 




Gray 


3/6 


Quintus Curtius 


Alexander in India 




Heitland & Raven 3/6 


Sallust 


Catiline 




Summers 


*/- 


» > 


Jugurtha 




„ 


2/6 


Tacitus 


Agricola and Germania 




Stephenson 


3/- 


)> 


Hist. Bk I 




Davies 


2/6 


Terence 


Hautontimorumenos 




Gray 


3/- 


Vergil 


Aeneid I to XII 
Bucolics 




Sidgwick 


1 /6 each 
1/6 


»> 


Georgics I, ii, and III, lv 




„ 


2/- each 


51 


Complete Works, Vol. I, 


Text „ 


3/6 


>> 


Vol. ii, 


Notes ,, 


4/6 




FRENCH 


. 






The Volumes marked * contain 


Vocabulary. 




About 


Le Roi des Montagnes 




Ropes 


2/- 


*Biart 


Quand j'etais petit, Pts I, 


ii 


Boielle 


2/- each 


Boileau 


L'Art Poetique 




Nichol Smith 


2/6 


Corneille 


La Suite du Menteur 




Masson 


2/- 


51 


Polyeucte 




Braunholtz 


2/- 


De Bonnechose 


Lazare Hoche 




6olbeck 


«/- 


ii 


' Bertrand du Guesclin 




Leathes' 


4- 


* 

>> 


; , Part II 




ii 


r/6 


Delavigne 


Louis XI 




Eve 


2/- 




Les Enfants d'Edouard 




11 


»/- 


De Lamartine 


Jeanne d'Arc 




Clapin & Ropes 


1/6 


De Vigny 


La Canne de Jonc 
3 




Eve 


1/6 



THE PITT PRESS SERIES. 



FRENCH continued. 

Author Work Editor Price 

*Dumas La Fortune de D'Artagnan Ropes 2/- 

*Enault Le Chien du Capitaine Verrall 2/- 

Erckmann-Chatrian La Guerre Clapin 3/- 

„ Waterloo Ropes 3/- 

„ Le Blocus ^ „ 3/- 

,, Madame Therese ,, 3/- 

,, Histoire d'un Consent ,, 3/- 

Gautier Voyage en Italie (Selections) Fayen Payne In the Pi-ess 

Guizot Discours sur l'Histoire de la 

Revolution d'Angleterre Eve 

*Malot Remi et ses Amis Verrall 

* ., Remi en Angleterre ,, 

Merim^e Colomba {Abridged) Ropes 
Michelet Louis XI & Charles the Bold „ 

Moliere Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme Clapin 

,, L'Ecole des Femmes Saintsbury 

„ Les Precieuses ridicules Braunholtz 

,, ,, {Abridged Edition) ,, 

„ Le Misanthrope ,, 

„ L'Avare ,, 

*PerrauTt Fairy Tales Rippmann 

Piron La Metromanie Masson 

Ponsard Charlotte Corday Ropes 

Racine Les Plaideurs Braunholtz 

,, ,, {Abridged Edition) ,, 

,, Athalie Eve 

Picciola Ropes 
Mdlle de la Seiffliere 



Saintine 

Sandeau 

Scribe & Legouve Bataille de Dames 

Scribe 

Sedaine 

Souvestre 



Bull 

Colbeck 
Bull 
Eve 

Ropes 



Spencer 
Stael, Mme de 



Thierry 



ViUernain 
Voltaire 



Xavier de 
Maistre 



Le Verre d'Eau 

Le Philosophe sans le savoir 

Un Philosophe sous les Toits 

Le Serf & Le Chevrier de Lorraine 

Le Serf 

A Primer of French Verse 

Le Directoire 

Dix Annees d'Exil (Book II 

chapters 1 — 8) 
Lettres sur l'histoire de 

France (xiil — xxiv) 
Recits des Temps Merovin- 

giens, I — III 
Lascaris ou les Grecs du xv e Siecle 
Histoire du Siecle de Louis 

XIV, in three parts Masson & Prothero 
La Jeune Siberienne. Le) Ar 

LepreuxdeiaCited'Aostej Masson 



Masson & Prothero 



Masson & Ropes 
Masson 



2/6 
*/- 
»/" 

»/- 

2/6 
1/6 
2/6 

»/- 
>/■ 

2/6 
2/6 
./6 

2/- 

»/- 

: i : 

»/- 

i\- 
*l- 
*/- 

2/- 
■/- 
*/- 
»/■ 

t/6 
3/- 
*/■ 

*/- 

2/6 

2/- 



2/6 ^a^ 
1/6 



THE PITT PRESS SERIES. 



GERMAN. 

The Volumes marked * contain Vocabulary. 



A uthor 


Work 


Editor 


Price 


*Andersen 


Eight Fairy Tales 


Rippmann 


2/6 


Benedix 


Dr Wespe 


Breul 


3/- 


Freytag 


Der Staat Friedrichs des 








Grossen 


Wagner 


*/- 


,, 


Die Journalisten 


Eve 


2/6 


Goethe 


Knabenjahre (1749 — 1 761) 


Wagner & Cartmell 


»/ ; 


,, 


Hermann und Dorothea 


j> »> 


3/6 


»> 


Iphigenie 


Breul 


3/6 


*Grimm 


Selected Tales 


Rippmann 


3/- 


Gutzkow 


Zopf und Schwert 


Wolstenholme 


3/6 


Hacklander 


Der geheime Agent 


E. L. Milner Barry 


3/" 


Hauff 


Das Bild des Kaisers 


Breul 


3/- 


u 


Das Wirthshaus im Spessart 


Schlottmann 








& Cartmell 


3/- 


»» 


Die Karavane 


Schlottmann 


3/- 


* 
J* 


Der Scheik von Alessandria 


Rippmann 


2/6 


Immermann 


Der Oberhof 


Wagner 


3/- 


*Klee 


Die deutschen Heldensagen 


Wolstenholme 


3/" 


Kohlrausci 


Das Jahr 181 3 


Cartmell [In the Press i\- 


Lessing 


Minna von Barnhelm 


Wolstenholme 


3/- 


Lessing & Gellert Selected Fables 


Breul 


3/- 


Mendelssohn 


Selected Letters 


Sime 


3/- 


Raumer 


Der erste Kreuzzug 


Wagner 


*/- 


Riehl 


Culturgeschi chtli che 








Novellen 


Wolstenholme 


3/" 


* 


Die Ganerben & Die Ge- 








rechtigkeit Gottes 


>) 


3/- 


Schiller 


Wilhelm Tell 


Breul 


2/6 


>> 


, , (A bridged Edition ) 


11 


1/6 


>» 


Geschichte des dreissigjah- 








rigen Kriegs Book in. 


,, 


3/- 


»> 


Maria Stuart 


>> 


3/6 


»> 


Wallenstein I. (Lager and 








Piccolomini) 


,, 


3/6 


M 


Wallenstein II. (Tod) 


,, 


3/6 


Sybel 


Prinz Eugen von Savoy en 


Quiggin 


2/6 


Uhland 


Ernst, Herzog von Schwaben 


Wolstenholme 


3/6 




Ballads on German History 


Wagner 


2!- 




German Dactylic Poetry 


»> 


3/- 



THE PITT PRESS SERIES. 





ENGLISH. 






Author 


Work 


Editor Price 


Bacon 


History of the Reign of 








King Henry VII 


Lumby 


3/- 


j> 


Essays 


West 3/6 & 5/" 


5 J 


New Atlantis 


G. C. M. Smith 


1/6 


Cowley 


Essays 


Lumby 


+/- 


Defoe 


Robinson Crusoe, Part I 


Masterman 


2I- 


Earle 


Microcosmography 


West 3 /- & 4 /- 


Gray 


Poems 


1 ovey 4/- & 5/- 


Kingsley 


The Heroes 


E. A. Gardner 


2/- 


Lamb 


Tales from Shakespeare 


Flather 


1/6 


Macanlay 


Lord Clive 


Innes 


1/6 


■a 


Warren Hastings 


)5 


1/6 




William Pitt and Earl of Chatham ,, 


2/6 


\\ 


Lays and other Poems 


Flather 


1/6 


Mayor 


A Sketchof Ancient Philosophy 








from Thales to Cicero 




3/6 


,, 


Handbook of English Metre 




*/- 


More 


History of King Richard III 


Lumby 


3/6 


>» 


Utopia 


,, 


3/6 


Milton 


Arcades and Comus 


Verity 


3/- 




Ode on the Nativity, L'Alle-j 




2/6 




gro, 11 Penseroso & Lycidas} 


" 


»» 


Samson Agonistes 


,, 


2/6 


>> 


Sonnets 


,, 


1/6 




Paradise Lost, six parts 


*/- 


each 


Pope 


Essay on Criticism 


West 


*h 


Scott 


Marmion 


Masterman 


2/6 


J> 


Lady of the Lake 


>> 


2/6 




Lay of the last Minstrel 


Flather 


»/- 


fJ 


Legend of Montrose 


Simpson 


2/6 


" 


Lord of the Isles 


Flather 


2/- 




Old Mortality 


Nicklin 


2/6 


>> 


Kenilworth Flather [In the Press 


2/6 


Shakespeare 


A Midsummer-Night's Dream 


Verity 


1/6 




Twelfth Night 


,, 


1/6 


■) 


Julius Caesar 


>» 


1/6 


^» 


The Tempest 


j> 


1/6 


>> 


King Lear 


j> 


1/6 


>» 


Merchant of Venice 


>» 


1/6 




King Richard II 


j> 


1/6 


j> 


As You Like It 


j> 


1/6 


5J 


King Henry V 


j* 


1/6 




Macbeth 


,, 


1/6 


Shakespeare 


& Fletcher Two Noble Kinsmen 


Skeat 


3/6 


Sidney 


An A^pologie for Poetrie 


Shuckburgh 


3/- 


Wallace 


Outlines of the Philosophy of Aristotle 


4/6 



THE PITT PRESS SERIES. 

ENGLISH continued. 



A uthor 



Work 



Editor 



Price 



West 


Elements of English Grammar 2/6 


>> 


English Grammar for Beginners 1/- 




Key to English Grammars 3/6 net 


Carlos 


Short History of British India 1/- 


Mm 


Elementary Commercial Geography 1/6 


Bartholomew 


Atlas of Commercial Geography 3/- 


Robinson 


Church Catechism Explained 2/- 


Jackson 


The Prayer Book Explained. Part I . 2/6 


») 


,, Part II In preparation 




MATHEMATICS. 


Ball 


Elementary Algebra 4/6 


Euclid 


Books I— VI, xi, XII Taylor 5/- 




Books 1— vi ,, 4/. 


M 


Books 1 — IV „ 3/- 




Also separately 




Books 1, & 11; in, & IV; v, & vi ; xi, & xii 1/6 each 


»i 


Solutions to Exercises in Taylor's 




Euclid W. W. Taylor 10/6 




And separately 


}J 


Solutions to Bks I — iv „ 6/- 


»» 


Solutions to Books vi. xi ,, 61- 


Hobson& Jessop Elementary Plane Trigonometry 4/6 



Loney 



Smith, C. 



Hale, G. 



Elements of Statics and Dynamics 7/6 

Part I. Elements of Statics 4/6 

,, 11. Elements of Dynamics 3/6 

Elements of Hydrostatics 4/6 

Solutions to Examples, Hydrostatics 5/- 

Solutions of Examples, Statics and Dynamics 7/6 

Mechanics and Hydrostatics 4/6 

Arithmetic for Schools, with or without answers 3/6 

Part 1. Chapters I— vill. Elementary, with 

or without answers 2/- 

Part 11. Chapters ix — xx, with or without 

answers 2/- 

Key to Smith's Arithmetic 7/6 



London: C. J. CLAY and SONS, 

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, 

AVE MARIA LANE. 

GLASGOW : 50, Wellington Street. 

7 



€f)t ©antMtrge Bttile for j&cfjools 
auti Colleges. 

General Editors : 
J. J. S. PEKOWNE, D.D., Formerly Bishop of Worcester, 
A. E. KIBKPATBICK, D.D., Lady Margaret Professor, 
E. H. CHASE, D.D., Norrisian Professor. 

Extra Fcap. 8vo. cloth, with Maps when required. 
New Volumes. 
I and H Chronicles. Bev. W. E. Barnes, D.D. 2s. 6d. net. 
Psalms. Books II and III. Prof. Kirkpatrick, D.D. 2s.net. 
Psalms. Books IV and V. Prof. Kirkpatrick, D.D. 2s. net. 
Song of Solomon. Bev. Andrew Harper, B.D. Is. 6d. net. 
Book of Daniel. Bev. S. B. Driver, D.D. 2s. 6d. net. 
Second Epistle to Corinthians. Bev. A. Plummer, D.D. 

Is. 6d. net. 
Epistles to Timothy & Titus. Bev. A. E. Humphreys, 

M.A. 2s. net. 

€l)t Smaller 
Cambrftrgje 33tble for £>rboote* 

Now Beady. With Maps. Price Is. each volume. 
Book of Joshua. Bev. J. S. Black, LL.D. 
Book of Judges. Bev. J. S. Black, LL.D. 
First Book of Samuel. Prof. Kirkpatrick, D.D. 
Second Book of Samuel. Prof. Kirkpatrick, D.D. 
First Book of Kings. Prof. Ltjmby, D.D. 
Second Book of Kings. Prof. Lumby, D.D. 
Ezra & Nehemiah. The Bt. Bev. H. E. Byle, D.D. 
Gospel according to St Matthew. Bev. A. Garr, M.A. 
Gospel according to St Mark. Bev. G. F. Maclear, D.D. 
Gospel according to St Luke, Very Bev. F. W. Earrar, D.D. 
Gospel according to St John. Bev. A. Plumher, D.D. 
Acts of the Apostles. Prof. Lumby, D.D. 

€i)t Cambridge <§mfe Cestament 

for Spools anfc Colleges. 

General Editors: J. J. S. PEBOWNE, D.D., 
J. ABMITAGE BOBINSON, D.D., E. H. CHASE, D.D. 
New Volumes. 
Second Epistle to Corinthians. Bev. A. Plummer, D.D. 3s. 
Epistle to the Fhilippians. Bt.Bev.H.C.G.MouLE,D.D. 2s. Qd. 
Epistle of St James. Bev. A. Carr, M.A. 2s. 6d. 
Pastoral Epistles. Bev. J. H. Bernard, D.D. 3s. 6d. 



Hontiott: C. J. CLAY and SONS, 

CAMBBIDGE WABEHOUSE, AVE MABIA LANE. 

©laggob:: 50, WELLINGTON STREET. 

Heipjts: F. A. BROCKHAUS. 

$eto lorfe: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 

CAMBRIDGE : PRINTED BT J. & C. F. CLAY, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 

8 



